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Video / Interactive Mode of Tutorial
16. User Studies And User Education
P- 05. Information Sources, Systems and Services *
By :Dr.Renu Arora,Paper Coordinator
Video / Interactive Mode of Tutorial
MODULE 16: USER STUDIES AND USER EDUCATION
Content Writer : Prof (Dr) SEWA SINGH, former Professor and Head, Department of Library
and Information Science, Guru Nanak Dev University, AMRITSAR
Subject Name : Library and Information Science
Paper Name : Information Sources, Services and Systems
Module Title : User Studies and User Education
Module Id : LIS/ISSS/16
Pre-requisites :
Knowledge about users and their information needs
Objectives : To know about the concept and need of user studies; to describe the methods of
user studies; to know the implications for libraries; to understand the concept,
objectives and need of user education; to understand the limitation of user studies;
to identify different levels and methods of user education; to learn about the
various limitations of user studies.
Keywords : User Studies; Methods of User Studies; Implications of User Studies;
Limitations of User Studies; User Education- Concept; Need for User
Education; Methods of User Education; Information Literacy.
1 INTRODUCTION
Of the three components of a modern library and information centre, viz., documents, users, and staff, the
users are regarded as the most important component. All the activities of a library, from acquisition of
documents to providing information contained therein, revolve round the needs of the users. They are the
people who use the resources and services a library offers. The nature and type of users depend upon the type
of library and information centre. So are their information needs which change according to their types. It is
a necessity on part of the libraries to assess their information needs in order to serve them better and provide
effective information services. It is a well-known fact that the fundamental objective of a library is to meet
the information needs of its various types of users in minimum possible time. This becomes easier if the
library attempts to assess their information needs, and user studies have the potential to know that. Similarly,
it is an aim of a library to attract a large number of users so that the resources are put to maximum use. In
order to remove any barriers between the users and the information, the library educates the users so as to
make them aware about the valuable sources and services. The users are guided to help themselves to locate
the required sources and information to meet their needs. In the present Module, attempt is made to know
about the methods of user studies as well as user education.2
2 USER STUDIES: CONCEPT AND MEANING
The concept of user studies has been defined differently by different expert librarians and information
scientists, based on the library surveys they conducted from time to time. A user study can be considered as a
systematic study of users’ information needs. The user studies help to identify as to what the users require
from their libraries.
Britain, while defining user studies, said that empirical studies of the use of, demand or need for, information
are usually called user studies. The Centre for Research on User Studies at the University of Sheffield,
observed that “the general objectives of research on users is further understanding of the processes of
information transfer. The research may be expected to lead to the improvement of information transfer
system of all types and to have implication for the organization of communication, the distribution or
researcher and the relationships between systems.” It is clear from the above that user studies generally
centre on the users in an attempt to understand their information needs, use behavior and use pattern.
User studies, according to Wilson, “is a term which covers a very wide range of potential research, from the
study of users’ choices of books from a university library, through reactions to online search outputs, to the
in depth analysis of the underlying needs that result in information seeking.”
2.1 Objectives of User Studies
Some of the objectives of user studies can be listed as follows:
a) To examine patterns of library use and identify gaps in use;
b) To evaluate the library resources;
c) To make selection of documents systematic;
d) To introduce documentation and information services; and
e) To evolve resource sharing with other libraries.
2.2 Need for User Studies
There are a number of reasons for conducting user studies. A library and information centre would like to
know about the information needs of its user community. User studies would help them to know about the
gaps between what is required by the users and what is being delivered. This and some other reasons
necessitate conducting user studies. Some of these reasons include:
a) To identify the levels and kinds of user needs;
b) To identify the priorities of users for library resources and services;
c) To identify the actual strengths and weaknesses of library resources and services;
d) To identify the limitations or problems which seem to discourage the use of the library;
e) To identify the level of involvement or participation of users in the library programme;
f) To improve the organization and planning for library services at both the local and national levels;
and
g) To know about the future information needs of the users.
2.3 User Studies: Planning
When the librarian or investigator is ready to conduct a user study, he must plan it carefully to the last detail
where each step needs to be worked out before plunging into the exercise.
2.3.1 Steps in the Plan3
There may be more than one way of conducting a user study to determine the information needs of the users
of a given library. However, a good plan for conducting a user study will usually consist of the following
steps:
a) Selection of the Problem: The investigator or librarian first identifies the problem to be studied as
the problem for one library may be different from that of another. The problem may be related to
reading habits, information needs, information seeking behavior, use pattern of sources and services,
etc.
b) Objectives: The investigator must formulate clearly the objectives of the study related to the
problem.
c) Previous Studies: The librarian must survey the previous studies as well as literature in general and
learning about all aspects of user studies.
d) Variables: The variables to be studied and the model to be followed may be determined at this stage.
e) Sample Population: The sample population to be studied may be selected.
f) Collection of Data: From the many methods available, the most suitable method for collection of
data for observation may be selected.
g) Analysis of Data: The method of analysis and interpretation of the collected data has to be
determined with the help of experts in statistical techniques.
h) Presentation of Data: The ways of presentation of data in tabular form, or charts, etc. for
preparation of the report need to be determined.
i) Report Writing: This is the last step where a final report has to be prepared. It would generally
include the title of the study, need of the study, objectives, methodology, scope and limitations of the
study, findings, suggestions, and conclusion of the study.
2.4 Selection of Sample
Selection of sample from the user population is regarded as important step, among other decisions. There are
a number of methods available for this purpose. Some of the most commonly used sampling techniques are
as follows:
a) Convenience Sampling: This method consists of deciding on the, say, first 20, or 50, etc. users that
come along as subject of study.
b) Random Sampling: It means picking the users for study from a population at random.
c) Stratified Sampling: It involves subdividing the population into sub-groups and then selecting users
for study randomly from each sub-group.
d) Representative Sampling: This method consists of determining beforehand individuals, pairs of
individuals, or small groups as subject of study with some characteristics in common.
2.5 User Studies: Methods or Techniques
Many methods and techniques are available to conduct user studies for determining their information needs.
Wood, while reviewing the methods used in studies of information users and their needs, has classified them
as follows:
a. Questionnaire method
b. Interview method
c. Diary method
d. Observation
e. Analysis of library data
Guha, on the other hand, categorized all the available methods under the following major groups:
i. General or Conventional Methods4
a. Questionnaire Method
b. Interview Method
c. Diary Method
d. Observation
e. Operations Research
ii. Indirect Methods
f. Analysis of Library Records
g. Citation Analysis
iii. Other Methods
h. Computer Feedback
i. Unconventional Methods
In the following sections will give a brief description of these methods employed in user studies.
2.5.1 General or Conventional Methods
The general methods of user studies include the following methods:
2.5.1.1 Questionnaire Method
It is one of the most popular methods among the investigators of research problems. A questionnaire is
usually a structured schedule of questions pertaining to a particular problem under study. A structured
questionnaire is used for the survey conducted by the questionnaire method. This questionnaire is generally
given to the user to fill in and return. On the other hand, unstructured questionnaire is used as a tool to
conduct interviews. The questions in a questionnaire can be grouped into such categories as general, closeended,
open-ended, etc. on the basis on the purpose of the study.
While designing a questionnaire, the investigator must take into consideration the following points:
- Questions should be simple and easy to understand.
- Questions framed should reflect the objectives of the study.
- The number of questions should be limited.
- Questions of confidential nature should be avoided.
The format of the questionnaire should be such as to understand and complete it easily. Therefore, the layout
of the questionnaire should be given due attention, and made consistent and clear.
Once the questionnaire is prepared, it is advisable to pre-test it through a pilot study on few users from the
population under study. It will help to know the shortcomings, if any, in the questionnaire, which can be
incorporated. It will also provide an estimate of time taken in completing the questionnaire, and so on.
On the basis of pilot study, the final form of the questionnaire is determined. At the time of the distribution
the questionnaire should be accompanied by a covering letter stating and objectives of the study and
requesting the complete cooperation of the user.
a) Advantages
It is experienced that the majority of the investigators follow the questionnaire method as an important
technique of data collection. Some of the reasons may be as follows:
a. It is simple and convenient method of data collection.
b. When the population is large and dispersed geographically, this method is useful.
c. It is economical and fast.5
b) Disadvantages
This method has the following disadvantages also:
a. The response level is usually low.
b. Due to poorly phrased questions respondents may not be able to answer them.
c. Difficult to verify the information provided by the respondents.
2.5.1.2 Interview Method
Another conventional method of data collection popular among the investigators is the interview method. It
is adopted in most field research or empirical social surveys. It is a method of personal interaction through
which the investigator gains an understanding of the reasons, etc. for human attitudes, preferences, or
behaviour.
Interviews can be structured and unstructured. Structured interview is based on a carefully worded interview
schedule. In unstructured interview, the interviewer encourages the respondent, in between, to talk freely. In
the present times of computer technology, interview can also be conducted through mobile phone, or e-mail,
or online chatting.
a) Advantages
It has the following advantages:
a. It is simple and easy to perform.
b. It is quick to be used.
c. The response rate is usually high.
d. Can cover wide geographical area.
e. Possible to obtain complete response.
b) Disadvantages
This method also has the following disadvantages:
a. It is time consuming and uneconomical.
b. Conducting interview requires some training.
c. Respondents have little time to think.
d. Sometimes responses may be difficult to analyze.
2.5.1.3 Diary Method
This is another conventional method of data collection which is used in survey research. In this method, the
respondents under study are asked to keep a detailed record of particular events, information activities, such
as information research, reading, browsing, literature search, and so on. These are problems which involve
human behavior, i.e. the users keep the record of their own activities and behaviour. The record is maintained
in the diaries given to the respondents over a period of time, rather than on a single occasion. This method is
used for items that are easily forgotten, whether because they are insignificant (for a particular study), or
because they occur frequently. After the study is complete, the diaries are returned to the investigator for
analysis.
a) Advantages6
The advantages of this method are as follows:
a. It is useful for recording events that may be difficult to recall at a later time.
b. It is useful to find out an aspect of users’ behavior that may change over time.
c. It can be used in situations where observation may not be practical.
b) Disadvantages
It has the following disadvantages also:
a. Difficult to obtain a running record from the busy respondents.
b. When a user’s library use is being investigated, he may change his usual patterns.
c. Difficult to persuade users to keep a diary, hence representative sample may not be available.
2.5.1.4 Observation Method
Observation as a method of data collection involves recording the behavioural pattern of people and events.
It is useful in such library areas as observing users’ behavior at reference desk, circulation desk, periodical
area, catalogue area, etc. There may be broadly two types of observations:
i. Participant Observation: The investigator becomes part of the group being investigated. This will
provide an opportunity to the investigator to study the insights of the situations.
ii. Non-participant Observation: The investigator observes the activities or situations closely but does
not communicate with people being observed.
The investigator can observe individual’s information seeking activities, for example, study of the pattern of
reference questions at the reference desk, or the use of reference sources, etc. If the investigator observes
situations repeatedly the reliability of data increases the validity of the study.
a) Advantages
The advantages of this method include the following:
a. Useful to study the actual behavior of the respondents.
b. The data collected is more reliable.
c. It is not biased.
b) Disadvantages
The disadvantages include the following:
a. It is time consuming method.
b. The duration of an activity may either be very long or too short to observe properly.
c. Sometimes difficult to quantify the human behavior.
2.5.1.5 Operations Research
Operations research is the application of scientific methods to management and administration of
government, commercial, or industrial systems. It is often considered as sub-field of mathematics because it
employs techniques from mathematical modelling, statistical analysis, etc. In this way, it arrives at optimal or
near-optimal solutions to complex decision-making problems. Interdisciplinary research teams adopt and
adapt scientific methods to large scale problems such as resource allocation, inventory control, etc.7
In this method, respondents selected for the study are observed at random during working hours of the library.
The time spent on various information activities is recorded by the investigator. Thus, it helps organizations
to investigate complex issues, identify and solve problems and make better decisions by using analytical
methods.
2.5.2
Indirect Methods
The indirect methods of data collection are as discussed below:
2.5.2.1 Analysis of Library Records
This method ascertains the users’ information requirements in an indirect manner. It involves the analysis of
statistical records maintained in a library which can provide a view of the information needs of the user
community. It includes the analysis of important library records such as circulation records, interlibrary loan
records, reference query request records, and so on. Analysis of these records reveals the nature of use of the
documents, types of reference questions asked, effectiveness of reference and information services, etc.
a) Advantages
a. It is useful in determining the policies of the library regarding collections, services, etc.
b. It is useful in the computerization of library in-house activities.
c. It can help to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of library services.
2.5.2.2 Citation Analysis
This is an indirect, but popular, method of user studies. It analyses the bibliographic citations appended to
their documents (journal articles, theses, books, etc.) by authors. It provides useful data on the types of
documents used and cited by the authors. The citations or reference provided by authors become the basis of
citation analysis. It explains that the documents cited by the authors are used by them; hence it is an
indication as to the nature of materials required by library users. Citation analysis proves helpful to the
librarian to take decision regarding the acquisition of documents, selection or rejection of material used for
developing an information service or product, etc. This method is also found to be useful in determining the
non-use of a significant proportion of journals; hence library can review its journal subscription policy.
a) Advantages
Citation analysis has the following advantages:
a. It is regarded as unbiased method.
b. It helps to produce a rank list of journals thus helping in their acquisition.
c. It also provides useful indicators for identifying institutions of excellence, individual experts, etc.
b) Disadvantages
Some of the disadvantages of this method are as follows:
a. Citation studies are not always good indicators of actual use of journals.
b. It provides only a limited idea about the use of documents as many other documents are not cited by
authors.
c. There is a possibility of citing unused documents of reputed authors.
2.5.3 Other Methods
The other methods include the following:8
2.5.3.1 Feedback or Computer Feedback
There has been a wide use of computer in libraries these days. Computer feedback makes use of the records
obtained as by-products of a computer search by users. Analysis of such records with the help of computer
can make it an effective technique in ascertaining users’ information needs. A library or an information
centre can acquire feedback on the services and products it provides to its users. For example, in Selective
Dissemination of Information service, the library asks for feedback for every document citation supplied to
the users. Such feedback from users can help to improve their profiles, and the services.
2.5.3.2 Unconventional Methods
Investigators can also make use of unconventional methods to know the users’ information requirements. By
making use of biographical, autobiographical, and other accounts of library scholars can explain their own
experience in the collection of information from various sources. Such a study can provide interesting
indicators on the uses’ approach to information. Being an unconventional method, it may or may not bring
in any additional data for the purpose of the study.
As is clear from the above discussion, each method has its own advantages and disadvantages, therefore, the
investigators may select any method that is suitable to the sample population and serves the purpose of the
study. The investigators invariably make use of more than one method, particularly in survey research, to
substantiate the data and findings of the user study.
2.6 Data Analysis Methods
Analysis of the data collected through various methods as discussed above indicates the trends of the
findings. Some of the more frequently used methods of analysis are given below:
2.6.1 Statistical Analysis: It includes the application of standard statistical techniques. These techniques
help in summarizing the data, comparing it, and testing it for any statistical significance.
2.6.2 Semantic Analysis: It covers application of semantic techniques. It is helpful in summarizing and
comparing data collected through user study.
2.6.3 Psycho-social Analysis: This method involves application of psychological and sociological
techniques which are useful in classifying or describing the data.
2.6.4 Economic Analysis: This method of data analysis constitutes the application of macro or micro
economic techniques. These techniques are useful in knowing the economic implications of data.
2.7 Implications of User Studies for Libraries
User studies can play important role in refreshing and improving library system and services. Some of the
implications of user studies for library resources and services can be as follows:
2.7.1 Collection Development: In order to develop a balanced and suitable collection, it is essential to know
the requirements of the users. This is accomplished through user studies undertaken by library staff the
findings of which can become basis of a well-balanced collection.
2.7.2 Weeding out Documents: In view of the growing collection of a library, it is becoming difficult to
store new acquisitions every year. Some user studies conducted about the use of library documents bring to
light the unused collection. This may become a strong basis for weeding out those documents lying unused
and outdated in the library for a long time. These may be kept in a separate dormitory before gifting out to
some needy libraries.9
2.7.3 Allocation of Resources: The opinions of users determined through user studies regarding the
appropriate allocation of resources in a library, such as money, men, material, and physical facilities, etc.
must be given due consideration by library authority. This may help to improve the use of library resources
and services.
2.7.4 User-based Information Services: In order to introduce new service(s) and/ or improve the existing
ones, it is advisable to ascertain opinions, and get feedback, through user studies. A service which is
required by a few users will prove to be uneconomical, and should not be started. Only those library and
information services need to be developed and introduced which are likely to be used by a majority of the
user community.
2.7.5 Improvement of Library Techniques
For the organization of knowledge in libraries, librarians have been making use of such techniques, inter alia,
as cataloguing and classification. The public catalogue has a direct bearing on the literature search by the
users. Therefore, catalogue use study will enable to assess the merits and demerits of the physical and
internal form of the catalogue, and help to improve it by making alterations wherever suggested. Now that
catalogue has been computerized in large libraries, user studies can again help to improve it further, if the
need arises.
2.8 Limitations of User Studies
Librarians have conducted many user studies from time to time to assess the information needs of their user
community. The results of these studies have provided the opportunity to know about strengths and
weaknesses of their collection and develop as per the users’ needs. However, it has been observed that
because of many complexities in the information needs these could not reflect a true picture.
Some of the shortcomings occurring in the user studies may be as follows:
1. Objectives of the user study are sometimes not properly determined by the investigators, and they
attempt to plunge into administering the questionnaire, etc.
2. Sampling techniques used by the investigators are not flawless. Selecting the right sample of users is
a big problem in itself. The investigators are not able to give due consideration to the refined
techniques of random sampling. Therefore, the resultant sample may be biased. This makes the
results of the study lop-sided which do not reflect the true picture.
3. The size of the sample should be such as to reflect the entire population which, in most of the user
studies, is not a representative one. This adversely affects the findings.
4. The composition of user population is equally important, because the information needs of users
working in an academic institution may be markedly different from those in government departments
or in industry, and so on.
5. Other variables such as age, education, experience, etc. also affect the information seeking behavior
of users.
6. Statistical analysis methods chosen may not be appropriate for the type of data collected.
If these and other limitations are removed from the user studies in future, the findings can be made more
valid and reliable. The library and information systems can come out of their cocoon, shed their passive
image, assume proactive role, and promote their resources and services.
3 USER EDUCATION: CONCEPT AND MEANING
It is an acknowledged fact that the various types of users from teachers to students, scientists to engineers,
managers to workers, business people to housewives, and so on, do not make optimum use of library and 10
information resources. The reasons are no far to seek. The growth in the size of information sources in a
variety of subjects has been making it difficult for users to find the needed documents. Coupled with this is
the impact of information communication technology in recent years which has led to change in the format of
documents making it further difficult to access the required sources. This makes it imperative for users to
learn the ways and methods for easy access to valuable sources of information. The librarian and his staff
may take some steps to impart some basic training to the users in the use of information services and sources.
In library and information science literature, many terms such as ‘initiation’, ‘bibliographic instruction’,
‘user education’, ‘user orientation’, and ‘user assistance’ have often been used interchangeably. However, the
activities included in these categories are interrelated and influence each other.
The aim of ‘orientation’ programme is to familiarize the users with a particular library and information
system and to help them through their problem. On the other hand, ‘user education’ generally consists not
only of orientation of the user in the practices and methods prevailing in a particular library system but also
of the knowledge regarding the structure of subject literature, its development, its information resources, etc.
In the words of Mews, “user education is instruction given to readers to help them make the best use of a
library.” According to Tocatlian, user education may be defined to include any effort or programme which
will guide and instruct existing and potential users.
Wilson defined user education as the process whereby potential users of information are made aware of the
value of information in specialized fields of activities.
So, the traditional user education programmes are designed with the aim of making the users aware of what
resources exist in the library, promoting them, and how best these can be used by individual users to find
suitable information.
It is clear from the above that user education is instructing and guiding the users how to use the library. A
user education programme, therefore, helps them to learn library and information practices, methods,
services and sources on their own.
3.1 User Education: Objectives
Some of the basic objectives of user education and training are as follows:
a. To create an awareness and understanding of the basic relevant library and information sources and
services,
b. To bridge the gap between the potential user and the library collection,
c. To enhance users’ abilities to select appropriate information sources and systems for a given
information need,
d. To offer instruction in the effective and efficient use of the available library facilities and resources,
e. To develop users’ knowledge and skills to access or retrieve the information required, and
f. To help in the assessment of existing library and information resources and services.
Thus, the long term objective is to make the user-library and information system interface more productive
and to improve the use of resources and services.
3.2 User Education: Need
The following factors may explain the need for user education programmes:
a) Growth of Information: In recent years, as a result of activities of various institutions, research
and development organizations, individuals, etc. there has been increase in information to the 11
extent that it has become almost difficult to keep track of it. This growth is further compounded
by the growth in the interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary subjects. Also, many information
sources are being brought out in digital form such as CD-ROMs, DVDs, etc. while many others
are available online. For efficient and effective use of these sources, and in order to retrieve the
required information out of a mass of information, user education and training has become
necessary.
b) Non-use of Library Resources: Library being a service institution, adds new documents to its
stock every now and then for its users. But user studies about the use of library resources have
reported that many of the documents in different subjects remain unused for various reasons. It is
a great challenge for librarians. User education will help to encourage the better use of available
resources.
c) Unfamiliarity with Library System: Most of the library users are not well familiar with the way
the documents are organized; they are not well familiar with the search process from the online
public access catalogue, online databases, computer-based retrieval system, and so on. User
education programme will definitely motivate them to have easy and efficient access to
information stored in various sources.
These are only some of the important reasons for initiating user education programmes in library and
information systems. Other reasons may include new methods of information transfer, changes in physical
format of documents, lack of proper guidance in library, and so on.
3.3 Methods of User Education
As no single method of user education is panacea for all categories of users, many methods are available for
this purpose. Nancy Fjallbrant and Ian Malley have identified the following three groups of methods:
1. Group Instruction: For providing instructions to users in groups they included :
a. Lecture method
b. Seminar/Tutorial/Demonstration method
c. Guided tour
2. Individual Instruction: Teaching methods generally used for individual instruction are:
a. Practical exercise
b. Self-instructional material (tours, signs, etc.)
c. Individual help
3. Group and Individual Instruction: For providing instructions both to groups and individual, the
following methods are included:
a. Films
b. Video tape
c. Tape/slide
d. Audio tape
e. Printed media (books, printed guides, etc.)
It may, however, be mentioned that the choice of teaching methods depends upon learning/teaching situation,
the users, and the subject material available for the purpose.
Some of the important methods are briefly discussed here.
a) Lecture Method
This is the most common and popular method of teaching, particularly when a large group of students is
involved. Delivering lectures about the use of library and its resources, and how best to use them is a 12
technique used by the librarian/reference librarian. Lectures, supported by the power point (ppt) technique,
can become quite effective in communicating the information to the audience.
b) Seminars/Tutorials/Demonstrations
Seminars, tutorials, and demonstrations are organized for small groups of users by the library. These are
regarded as effective methods for awareness and imparting awareness about library sources and services.
These methods come up with an opportunity for more useful interaction between the users and the library
staff. The staff, by way of demonstration can easily explain to the users how to use various reference and
information sources for retrieving needed information. The users may be given topic/s to search information
by consulting various reference and other sources.
c) Guided Tour
The basic objective of guided library tour is to familiarize the users in a small group with the location of
different sections the library. These tours are generally conducted under the guidance of a senior library staff
member and users are taken around the library building. This method is useful as the users get to know about
the actual use of catalogue, classification system being followed, photocopying section, circulation section,
how to enrol members of the library and get books issued, and other library rules. In many libraries, selfguided
tours with the help of printed booklets have also been followed. However, this method requires lot of
library staff time.
d) Audio-Visual Method
This is yet another method of providing instructions to a group of users about the library sources and services.
The use of tape/slide medium or audio tapes in combination with printed material was considered suitable for
user education in the 1980s and 1990s. It was possible to display with the help of audio-visual aids, how to
make use of library resources, how the classification system works, how the circulation section performs the
job, how to search information from reference sources, and so on. This method had the advantage of having
profound impact on the minds of the users. With the introduction of computers in libraries, this method is
now replaced with the use of multimedia, and the like.
e) Video-Tapes
Many libraries prepare short motion films for user education purpose on different aspects of library sources
and services. The users can be explained about, say, how to use catalogue and find books, how to use various
reference sources, the services offered by the library to its users and how to use them effectively, and so on.
This method is useful when the users are in a group. A well prepared video tape or film can be useful to
motivate users for making a better use of library and its resources. The only disadvantage is that the users
have to view and listen to the entire programme and then seek clarifications, if any.
f) Programmed Instruction
Programmed instruction is a course of instruction given by library staff making use of a variety of media.
The subject matter of instruction is generally divided into a logical sequence of short items. It is carried out
by means of printed books, automatic projection of slides, or computer-aided instruction programme. The
advantage of programmed instruction is that the users while working at their own pace can actively
participate in the learning process. They can also check the suitability of their responses immediately.
g) Computer Assisted Instructions
It is regarded as a very useful means of programmed instructions for teaching the use of more complex
bibliographic tools, use of catalogue, indexes, etc. The instructions are given to the users through a computer 13
with inbuilt software. The instructions are presented in small steps, and there is no need for a human
instructor. The user learner makes a response in a two-way conversation which determines the next step. It
also provides immediate feedback to the users.
h) Signs and Informational Graphics
One of the basic methods of user education is the use of sign systems and informational graphics. This
method has been in use since long, as the libraries have been using the different types of signs. The sign
system can be grouped into two main types, viz. signs related to direction finding, and signs related to the use
of library resources. It is observed that to make the signs most effective for user orientation they must be
carefully planned with regard to position, content and presentation.
i) Individual Instructions
Reference desk is the vantage point for the reference librarian where he meets the user. Library instructions
provided to the individual user when he approaches the reference desk for help is one of the best ways of
user education. It is the easiest way to help the needy user teaching him how to find out the required
information. In this process, the user can learn about the use of library and its resources.
j) Library Pathfinders
Printed guides have been found very useful as a method of user education. An alternative to these guides has
been developed as library pathfinders. A library pathfinder is “a kind of map to the resources of the library; it
is an information locator for the library user whose search for recorded materials on a subject of interest is
just beginning.” According to Online Dictionary for Library and Information Science pathfinder is “designed
to lead the user through the process of researching a specific topic, or any topic in a given field or discipline,
usually in a systematic step-by-step way, making use of the best finding tools the library has to offer.”
It is a step-by-step instruction tool that will help users to find the basic documents required to begin a search
on a topic. It is designed to gather all of the most useful, relevant, reliable and authoritative resources on a
variety of academic work-related or general interest topic. Pathfinders were originally developed in printed
format in large academic libraries, but with the emergence of the World Wide Web they may now act as
portals to information about resources in a variety of formats including books, encyclopaedias, bibliographies,
journals, databases, almanacs, websites, search engines, etc. Each pathfinder may include systematically the
scope of the topic, standard works, guides and bibliographies, indexing and abstracting services, call number,
subject headings, etc. for literature searching. Pathfinders, therefore, help users, particularly students, find
paths to information. This is why Jeanne Galvin suggests that the users of assignment-specific pathfinders
that are readable and that can be used by students from completing assignments are more useful than more
general pathfinders. Therefore, a library, to meet the information needs of its users, ought to prepare its own
specific pathfinders to provide guidance to the users.
It has been observed from the above discussion that no single teaching method is all encompassing for user
education purpose. The suitability of teaching method and media depends upon teaching-learning situation,
the subject concerned, and the users and staff involved in the training process.
3.4 Towards Information Literacy
With the development and application of computers, the face of libraries is also changing. Libraries are
acquiring reference and information sources in new format, i.e., electronic resources; the catalogue has
become online; new services are being developed (including Internet-based services) to meet the rising and
complex user needs; and so on. 14
Library users, therefore, need specific type of training in the use of new reference sources, electronic sources,
internal tools developed by the library (such as OPAC), etc. To meet such a complex situation, in this context,
a new term ‘information literacy’ was developed in the early 1970s. Information literacy aims at making a
user capable to recognize when information is needed, how to locate it, how to evaluate it, and use it
effectively. It is the ability to use information from various sources in an effective and efficient manner and
become informed about various information retrieval techniques. The American Library Association (in 1989
only) defined information literacy as a set of abilities enabling individuals to “recognize when information is
needed and have the capacity to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information.” Thus,
information literacy can be defined as the basis for lifelong learning for the users because they know how to
access information efficiently and effectively, they can evaluate information critically and critically, and they
can use information accurately and creatively.
3.5 Evaluation of User Education Programmes
Evaluation helps in assessing any programme, project or any other initiative regarding its aim, concept, etc.
Evaluation is a systematic determination of a subject’s merit, worth and significance, using a standard criteria.
In other words, it is a systematic, rigorous and meticulous application of scientific methods to assess the
design, implementation, improvement, or outcome of a program. The primary purpose of evaluation is to find
out the quality of a programme by formulating a judgement and use the analysis results for rational decision
making.
4 SUMMARY
A library or an information system, and all its activities revolve round the user. From library collections to
information sources, to in-house tools, to library and information services, and so on, are developed keeping
into view the requirements of the various types of users. Despite the efforts of the library and its manpower
there exist some gaps between what the library offers and the information services needed by the users. In an
attempt to bridge this gap libraries plan and conduct user studies. In this Module, the concept of user studies,
the need for user studies, their objectives, etc. are discussed. It has explained in detail the various methods
and techniques used by the investigators to conduct user studies from time to time. The findings of the user
studies have their implications for improving the library system and promoting the use of its resources. The
Module also discusses another related aspects of user education. It describes the need for educating the users
so as to improve the use of precious resources of a library. In order to achieve the objectives of user
education, various methods of user instruction followed by a library have been explained. In view of the new
developments, it concludes with the concept of information literacy, and need for evaluating user education
programmes.
5 TEXT FOR VOICE NARRATION
USER STUDIES: CONCEPT AND MEANING
The concept of user studies has been defined differently by different expert librarians and information
scientists, based on the library surveys they conducted from time to time. A user study can be considered as a
systematic study of users’ information needs. The user studies help to identify as to what the users require
from their libraries.
User studies, according to Wilson, “is a term which covers a very wide range of potential research, from the
study of users’ choices of books from a university library, through reactions to online search outputs, to the
in depth analysis of the underlying needs that result in information seeking.”
Objectives of User Studies15
Some of the objectives of user studies can be listed as follows:
1. To examine patterns of library use and identify gaps in use;
2. To evaluate the library resources;
3. To make selection of documents systematic;
4. To introduce documentation and information services; and
5. To evolve resource sharing with other libraries.
Need for User Studies
There are a number of reasons for conducting user studies.
1. To identify the levels and kinds of user needs;
2. To identify the priorities of users for library resources and services;
3. To identify the actual strengths and weaknesses of library resources and services;
4. To identify the limitations or problems which seem to discourage the use of the library;
5. To identify the level of involvement or participation of users in the library programme; and
6. To improve the organization and planning for library services at both the local and national levels;
7. To know about the future information needs of the users.
User Studies: Steps in Planning
There may be more than one way for conducting a user study to determine the information needs of the users
of a given library. However, a good plan for conducting a user study will usually consist of the following
steps:
1. Selection of the Problem
2. Objectives
3. Previous Studies
4. Variables
5. Sample Population
6. Collection of Data
7. Analysis of Data
8. Presentation of Data
9. Report Writing
Selection of Sample
Selection of sample from the user population is regarded as important, among other decisions. There are a
number of methods available for this purpose. Some of the most commonly used sampling techniques are as
follows:
Convenience Sampling
Random Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Representative Sampling
User Studies: Methods and Techniques16
Many methods and techniques are available to conduct user studies for determining their information needs.
Wood, while reviewing the methods used in studies of information users and their needs, has classified them
as follows:
a. Questionnaire method
b. Interview method
c. Diary method
d. Observation, and
e. Analysis of library data.
Guha, on the other hand, categorized all the available methods under the following major groups:
1. General or Conventional Methods
a. Questionnaire Method
b. Interview Method
c. Diary Method
d. Observation
e. Operations Research
2. Indirect Methods
a. Analysis of Library Records
b. Citation Analysis
3. Other Methods
a. Computer Feedback
b. Unconventional Methods
In the following paragraphs we give a brief description of these methods employed in user studies.
Questionnaire Method
It is one of the most popular methods among the investigators of research problems. A questionnaire is
usually a structured schedule of questions pertaining to a particular problem under study. A structured
questionnaire is used for the survey conducted by the questionnaire method. This questionnaire is generally
given to the user to fill in and return. On the other hand, unstructured questionnaire is used as a tool to
conduct interview.
Advantages of questionnaire method include:
a. It is simple and convenient method of data collection.
b. When the population is large and dispersed geographically, this method is useful.
c. It is economical and fast.
Disadvantages of this method are:
a. It is simple and convenient method of data collection.
b. When the population is large and dispersed geographically, this method is useful.
c. It is economical and fast.
Interview Method
It is adopted in most field research or empirical social surveys. It has the following advantages:
a. It is simple and easy to perform.
17
b. It is quick to be used.
c. The response rate is usually high.
d. Can cover wide geographical area.
e. Possible to obtain complete response.
This method also has the following disadvantages:
a. It is time consuming and uneconomical.
b. Conducting interview requires some training.
c. Respondents have little time to think.
d. Sometimes responses may be difficult to analyze.
Diary Method
This is another conventional method of data collection which is used in survey research. In this method
the respondents under study are asked to keep a detailed record of particular events, information
activities, such as information research, reading, browsing, literature search, and so on.
The advantages of this method are as follows:
a. It is useful for recording events that may be difficult to recall at a later time.
b. It is useful to find out an aspect of users’ behavior that may change over time.
c. It can be used in situations where observation may not be practical.
It has the following disadvantages also:
a. Difficult to obtain a running record from the busy respondents.
b. When a user’s library use is being investigated, he may change his usual patterns.
c. Difficult to persuade users to keep a diary, hence representative sample may not be available.
Observation Method
Observation as a method of data collection involves recoding the behavioural pattern of users in such library
areas as at reference desk, circulation desk, periodical area, catalogue area, etc. There may be broadly two
types of observations:
i. Participant Observation: The investigator becomes part of the group being investigated. This will
provide an opportunity to the investigator to study the insights of the situations.
ii. Non-participant Observation: The investigator observes the activities or situations closely but does
not communicate with people being observed.
It has the following advantages:
d. Useful to study the actual behavior of the respondents.
e. The data collected is more reliable.
f. It is not biased.
Its disadvantages include the following:
d. It is time consuming method.
e. The duration of an activity may either be very long or too short to observe properly.
f. Sometimes difficult to quantify the human behavior.
Operations Research Method18
Operations research is the application of scientific method to management and administration of government,
commercial, or industrial systems. It is often considered as sub-field of mathematics because it employs
techniques form mathematical modeling, statistical analysis, etc. In this way it arrives at optimal or nearoptimal
solutions to complex decision-making problems.
Analysis of Library Records
It includes the analysis of important library records such as circulation records, interlibrary loan records,
reference query request records, and so on. Analysis of these records reveals the nature of use of the
documents, types of reference questions asked, effectiveness of reference and information services, etc.
It has the following advantages:
a. It is useful in determining the policies of the library regarding collections, services, etc.
b. It is useful in the computerization of library in-house activities.
c. It can help to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of library services.
Citation Analysis
It analyses the bibliographic citations appended to their documents (journal articles, theses, books, etc) by
authors. It provides useful data on the types of documents used and cited by the authors.
Citation analysis has the following advantages:
a. It is regarded as unbiased method.
b. It helps to produce a rank list of journals thus helping in their acquisition.
c. It also provides useful indicators for identifying institutions of excellence, individual experts, etc.
Some of the disadvantages of this method are as follows:
a. Citation studies are not always good indicators of actual use of journals.
b. It provides only a limited idea about the use of documents as many other documents are not cited by
authors.
c. There is a possibility of citing unused documents of reputed authors.
Feedback or Computer Feedback
There has been a wider use of computer in libraries these days. Computer feedback makes use of the records
obtained as by-products of a computer search by users. Analysis of such records with the help of computer
can make it an effective technique in ascertaining users’ information needs. A library or an information
centre can acquire feedback on the services and products it provides to its users.
Data Analysis Methods
Analysis of the data collected through various methods indicates the trends of the findings. Some of the
more frequently used methods of analysis are given below:
Statistical Analysis: It includes the application of standard statistical techniques.
Semantic Analysis: It covers application of semantic techniques.
Psycho-social Analysis: This method involves application of psychological and sociological techniques.19
Economic Analysis: This method of data analysis constitutes the application of macro or micro economic
techniques.
Implications of User Studies for Libraries
Some of the implications of user studies for library resources and services can be as follows:
Collection Development: In order to develop a balanced and suitable collection, it is essential to know the
requirements of the users.
Weeding out Documents: Some user studies conducted about the use of library documents bring to light the
unused collection which may become a strong basis for weeding out those documents lying unused and
outdated in the library for a long time.
Allocation of Resources: The opinions of users determined through user studies regarding the appropriate
allocation of resources in a library, such as money, men, material, and physical facilities, etc must be given
due consideration by library authority.
User-based Information Services: In order to introduce new service(s) and/ or improve the existing ones, it is
advisable to ascertain opinions, and get feedback, through user studies.
Improvement of Library Techniques: For the organization of knowledge in libraries, librarians have been
making use of cataloguing and classification. The public catalogue has a direct bearing on the literature
search by the users. Hence, catalogue use study will enable to assess the merits and demerits of the physical
and internal form of the catalogue.
Limitations of User Studies
Some of the shortcomings occurring in the user studies may be as follows:
Objectives of the user study are sometimes not properly determined by the investigators.
Sampling techniques used by the investigators are not flawless.
The size of the sample should be such as to reflect the entire population.
The composition of user population is equally important.
Other variables such as age, education, experience, etc also affect the information seeking behavior of users.
Statistical analysis methods chosen may not be appropriate for the type of data collected.
User Education: Meaning
In the words of Mews, “user education is instruction given to readers to help them make the best use of a
library.” According to Tocatlian, user education may be defined to include any effort or programme which
will guide and instruct existing and potential users.
Wilson defined user education as the process whereby potential users of information are made aware of the
value of information in specialized fields of activities.
So, the traditional user education programmes are designed with the aim of making the users aware of what
resources exist in the library, promoting them, and how best these can be used by individual users to find
suitable information.20
User Education: Objectives
Some of the basic objectives of user education and training may be as follows:
a. To create an awareness and understanding of the basic relevant library and information sources and
services.
b. To bridge the gap between the potential user and the library collection.
c. To enhance users’ abilities to select appropriate information sources and systems for a given
information need.
d. To offer instruction in the effective and efficient use of the available library facilities and resources.
e. To develop users’ knowledge and skills to access or retrieve the information required.
f. To help in the assessment of existing library and information resources and services.
User Education: Need
The following factors may explain the need for user education programmes:
Growth of Information
Non-use of Library Resources
Unfamiliarity with Library System
Methods of User Education
As no single method of user education is panacea for all categories of users, many methods are available for
this purpose. Nancy Fjallbrant and Ian Malley have identified the following three groups of methods:
Group Instruction: For providing instructions to users in groups they included :
a. Lecture method
b. Seminar/Tutorial/Demonstration method
c. Guided tour
Individual Instruction: Teaching methods generally used for individual instruction are:
k) Practical exercise
l) Self instructional material (tours, signs, etc)
m) Individual help
Group and Individual Instruction: For providing instructions both to groups and individual, the following
methods are included:
n) Films
o) Video tape
p) Tape/slide
q) Audio tape
r) Printed media ( book, printed guide, etc.)
These methods are discussed as follows:
1. Lecture Method 21
This is the most common and popular method of teaching, when a large group of students is involved.
2. Seminars/Tutorials/Demonstrations
For small groups of users, seminars, tutorials, and demonstrations are organized by the library.
3. Guided Tour
The basic objective of guided library tour is to familiarize the users in a small group with the location of
different sections the library.
4. Audio-Visual Method
The use of tape/slide medium or audio tapes in combination with printed material was considered suitable for
user education.
5. Video-Tapes
Many libraries prepare short motion films for user education purpose on different aspects of library sources
and services.
6. Programmed Instruction
Programmed instruction is a course of instruction given by library staff making use of a variety of media.
7. Computer Assisted Instructions
It is regarded as a very useful means of programmed instructions for teaching the use of more complex
bibliographic tools, use of catalogue, indexes, etc. The instructions are given to the users through a computer
with inbuilt software.
8 Signs and Informational Graphics
The use of sign systems and informational graphics has been in use since long, as the libraries have been
using the different types of signs, e.g. direction signs.
9. Individual Instructions
Library instructions provided to the individual user when he approaches the reference desk for help is one of
the best ways of user education.
10. Library Pathfinders
An alternative to printed guides has been developed as library pathfinders. A library pathfinder is “a kind of
map to the resources of the library; it is an information locator for the library user whose search for recorded
materials on a subject of interest is just beginning.”
Towards Information Literacy
With the development and application of computers the face of libraries is changing. Libraries are acquiring
reference and information sources in new format, i.e., electronic resources; the catalogue has become online;
new services are being developed (including Internet-based services) to meet the rising and complex user
needs; and so on. Library users, therefore, need specific type of training in the use of new reference sources,
electronic sources, internal tools developed by the library (such as OPAC), etc. To meet such a complex
situation, a new term ‘information literacy’ was developed in the early 1970s. Information literacy aims at 22
making a user capable to recognize when information is needed, how to locate it, how to evaluate it, and use
it effectively.
Evaluation of User Education Programme
Evaluation is a systematic determination of a subject’s merit, worth and significance, using a standard criteria.
In other words, it is a systematic, rigorous and meticulous application of scientific methods to assess the
design, implementation, improvement, or outcome of a program. The primary purpose of evaluation is to find
out the quality of a programme by formulating a judgement and use the analysis results for rational decision
making.
6
CHUNK TEXT
- User Studies- Concept and meaning
- Objectives of user studies
- Need for user studies
- User Studies- Planning
- Steps in Planning
- Selection of Sample
- User Studies- Methods or Techniques
o General or Conventional Methods
Questionnaire Method
Interview Method
Observation Method
Diary Method
Operations Research
o Indirect Methods
Analysis of Library Records
Citation Analysis
o Other Methods
Computer Feedback
Unconventional Methods
- Data Analysis Methods
o Statistical Analysis
o Semantic Analysis
o Psycho-social Analysis
o Economic Analysis
- Implications of User Studies for Libraries
o Collection Development
o Weeding out Documents
o Allocation of Resources
o User-based Information Services
o Improvement of Library Techniques
- Limitations of User Studies
o Objectives
o Sampling Techniques23
o Size of Sample
o Composition of Users
o Other Variables
o Statistical Analysis
- User Education- Concept and Meaning
- User Education- Objectives
- User Education- Need
o Growth of Information
o Non-use of Library Resources
o Unfamiliarity with Library System
- Methods of User Education
o Group Instruction
Lecture Method
Seminar/Demonstration Method
Guided Tour
o Individual Instruction
Pathfinders
o Group and Individual Instruction
Audio-Visual Methods
Video Tapes
Programmed Instruction
Computer Assisted Instruction
Signs and Informational Graphics
o Information literacy
o Evaluation of User Education Programmes
7
8 GLOSSARY
I Information Literacy : Ability to find and use information from various sources effectively and
efficiently.
L Library Orientation : Introduces new members to library procedure, layout, sources and services.
U User Awareness : It increases awareness about library, its resources and services.
User Studies : Efforts to know about the ways users obtain and use information.
24
9 REFERENCES
Devarajan, G. Library Information User and Use Studies. New Delhi: Beacon Books, 1995
.
Fjallbrant, Nancy and Malley, Ian. User Education in Libraries. 2nd ed. London: Clive Bingley, 1984.
Galvin, Jeanne. “Alternative Strategies for Promoting Information Literacy.” Journal of Academic
Librarianship 31, no. 4 (2005): 352-357.
Girja Kumar and Krishan Kumar. Philosophy of User Education. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1983.
Guha, B. Documentation and Information Services, Techniques and Systems. 2nd rev. ed. Calcutta: World
Press, 1983. Reprinted 1999.
Kawatra, P. S. Library User Studies: A Manual for Librarians and Information Scientists. Bombay: Jaico
Publishing House, 1992.
Krishan Kumar. Research Methods in Library and Information Science. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House,
1992.
Lubans, John, Jr. Educating the Library User. New York: R. R. Bowker Company, 1974.
Morris, Sara and Bosque, Darcy Del. “Forgotten Resources: Subject Guides in the Era of Web 2.0”.
Technical Services Quarterly 27, no. 2 (2010): 178-193
.
Reitz, Joan. “Pathfinder (definition)”. Online Dictionary for Library and Information Science. ABC-CLIO.
(www.abc-clio.com/ODLIS).
Satyanarayana, N. R., ed. User Education in Academic Libraries. New Delhi: Ess Ess Publications, 1988
.
Singh, Neena. “Teaching Information Literacy: Some Impressions from India and Germany.” In Challenges
and Changes in Librarianship: Papers in Honour of Professor Sewa Singh, edited by A. Amudhavalli and
Jasmer Singh. Delhi: B.R. Publishing Corporation, 2010. p. 734-760.
Wilson, T. D. On User Studies and Information Needs.” Journal of Librarianship 37, no. 1 (1981): 3-15.
(Available at http://informationr.net/tdw/publ/papers/1981 infoneeds.html).
Wilson. T. D. “Recent Trends in User Studies: Action Research and Qualitative Methods.” Information
Research 5, no. 3 (2000). (Available at http://informationr.net/ir/5-3/paper76.html).
Wood, D. N. “Use Studies: A Review of Literature from 1966 to 1970.” Aslib Proceedings 23, no. 1 (1971)
ASSESSMENT AND EVALAUATION
7.1 True and False Statements
1. The purpose of user education is to make the users aware of library resources.
2. User studies are conducted to know about information needs of new users.
3. Citation analysis is a general method of user studies.
4. Stating objectives is mandatory in planning a user study.
5. Observation is useful in studying the users’ behavior at reference desk.
7.2 Multiple Choice Questions
6. At least three of the general methods of user studies include….
(a) Citation analysis, operations research and feedback
(b) Questionnaire, interview, and observation
(c) Feedback, diary, and citation analysis
(d) All of the above
7. In addition to Random sampling, the other three important sampling methods are…….
(a) Stratified sampling, representative sampling, and cluster sampling
(b) Representative sampling, convenience sampling and area sampling
(c) Convenience sampling, stratified sampling and representative sampling
(d) None of the above
8. Important steps in planning a user study include….
(a) Selection of problem, knowing the previous studies, and stating the objectives
(b) Determining variables, selecting sample, and data collection
(c) Analysis of data, presentation of data, and report writing
(d) All of the above
9. Group instructions for user education include the ……….methods
(a) Lecture, seminar, and guided tour
(b) Demonstration, self- instructional material, and individual help
(c) Lecture, film, and help at reference desk
(d) All of the above
10. Need for user education arises because there is……….
(a) Growth of information, and unfamiliarity with library system
(b) Non-use of resources, and new methods of information transfer
(c) Change in physical formats of documents, and lack of proper guidance
(d) All of the above
7.3 Fill in the Blanks
11. Library pathfinder is a step-by-step…………..
12. The term ‘information literacy’ was developed in ………….
13. Programmed instruction makes use of a variety of ………….
14. User instruction is given to users to make best use of……
15. A user study is a systematic study of ………….
ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS
1. True2. False
3. False
4. True
5. True
6. (b)
7. (c)
8. (d)
9. (a)
10. (d)
11. instruction tool
12. early 1970s
13. media
14. library resources
15. users’ information needs
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