INDIAN HISTORY-10

इस ब्लॉग्स को सृजन करने में आप सभी से सादर सुझाव आमंत्रित हैं , कृपया अपने सुझाव और प्रविष्टियाँ प्रेषित करे , इसका संपूर्ण कार्य क्षेत्र विश्व ज्ञान समुदाय हैं , जो सभी प्रतियोगियों के कॅरिअर निर्माण महत्त्वपूर्ण योगदान देगा ,आप अपने सुझाव इस मेल पत्ते पर भेज सकते हैं - chandrashekhar.malav@yahoo.com

1. East India Company arrived in India at the time was ruled by the king in India? - Jahangir

2. East India Company to do business in India, which was in the year - 1615 

3. India East India Company made ​​its first business center in what position? - Surat 

4. Who was the battle of Plassey Middle - East India Company and the Nawab of Bengal 

5. Sthanantrit capital of British India from Calcutta to Delhi, which was the year - 1911 

6. India's first Governor-General's name? - William Bentinck 

7. Tipu Sultan was the East India Company conquered in what year? - 1792 

8. Rani of Jhansi war with the Englishman was in what year? - 1858 

9. Who was the founder of Hot Party in Congress - Bal Gangadhar Tilak 

10. To gain independence from the British, "Azad Hind Fauj" was established Kinhonne - Chandrashekhar Azad 

11.Humayu on the Sher Shah conquered in what year? - 1540 

14. Who was the Second Battle of Panipat - Akbar and Hemu 

15. The war between Akbar and Maharana Pratap is known by what name? - Turmeric Valley War 

16. Preferably chained to the judgment which the king? - Jahangir 

17. Mumtajmahl wife of Shah Jahan, the Taj Mahal built by Shah Jahan for, where the death took place? - Burhanpur 

18. Where is the tomb of Aurangzeb - Aurangabad 

19.What is the name of the daughter of Babur - Gulbdn Begum 

20. "Fatehpur Sikri" how the city built by Emperor - Akbar

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1. ईस्ट इण्डिया कम्पनी के भारत आने के समय भारत में किस बादशाह का शासन था?- जहांगीर

2. ईस्ट इण्डिया कम्पनी को भारत में व्यापार करने की अनुमति किस सन् में मिली?- 1615

3. ईस्ट इण्डिया कम्पनी का भारत में पहला व्यापार केन्द्र किस स्थान पर बना?- सूरत

4. प्लासी का युद्ध किनके मध्य हुआ था?- ईस्ट इण्डिया कम्पनी और बंगाल के नवाब

5. ब्रिटिश भारत की राजधानी कलकत्ता से दिल्ली किस सन में स्थानन्तरित की गई थी?- 1911

6.भारत के प्रथम गवर्नर जनरल का नाम क्या है?- विलियम बेंटिक

7. ईस्ट इण्डिया कम्पनी ने टीपू सुल्तान पर किस सन् में विजय प्राप्त की?- 1792

8. झाँसी की रानी लक्ष्मीबाई का अग्रेजों के साथ युद्ध किस सन् में हुआ था?- 1858

9. कांग्रेस में गरम दल के संस्थापक कौन थे?- बाल गंगाधर तिलक

10. अंग्रेजों की गुलामी से मुक्ति पाने के लिए “आजाद हिन्द फौज” की स्थापना किन्होंने किया था?--  रास बिहारी बोस 

11. भारत का प्रथम मुगल शासक कौन था?- बाबर

12भारत में मुगल साम्राज्य कि सन् में स्थापित हुआ?- 1526(पानीपत के युद्ध में बाबर ने इब्राहिम लोदी पर विजय प्राप्त की और मुगल साम्राज्य स्थापित हुआ।)

13. हुमायु ने शेरशाह सूरी पर किस सन् में विजय प्राप्त की?- 1540

14. पानीपत का द्वितीय युद्ध किनके बीच हुआ?- अकबर और हेमू

15. अकबर और महाराणा प्रताप के मध्य हुए युद्ध को किस नाम से जाना जाता है?- हल्दी घाटी का युद्ध

16. किस बादशाह ने न्याय के लिए जंजीर लगवाया?

- जहांगीर

17. शाहजहां की बेगम मुमताजमहल, जिसके लिए शाहजहां ने ताजमहल बनवाया, की मृत्यु कहाँ पर हुई थी?- बुरहानपुर

18. औरंगजेब का मकबरा कहाँ पर है?- औरंगाबाद

19. बाबर की पुत्री का क्या नाम था?- गुलबदन बेगम

20. “फतेहपुर सीकरी” शहर किस बादशाह ने बनवाया?- अकबर

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डाउनलोड भारतीय इतिहास नोट्स  ……क्लिक HERE 

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War of the Indian History

भारतीय इतिहास के प्रमुख युद्ध

(War of the Indian History)

ई.पू.

३२६ हाईडेस्पीज का युद्ध : सिकंदर और पंजाब के राजा पोरस के बीच जिसमे सिकंदर की विजय हुई |

२६१ कलिंग की लड़ाई : सम्राट अशोक ने कलिंग पर आक्रमण किया था और युद्ध के रक्तपात से विचलित होकरउन्होंने युद्ध न करने की कसम खाई |

ईस्वी

७१२ – सिंध की लड़ाई में मोहम्मद कासिम ने अरबों की सत्ता स्थापित की |

११९१ – तराईन का प्रथम युद्ध – मोहम्मद गौरी और पृथ्वी राज चौहान के बीच हुआ था | चौहान की विजय हुई |

११९२ -तराईन का द्वितीय युद्ध – मोहम्मद गौरी और पृथ्वी राज चौहान के बीच| इसमें मोहम्मद गौरी की विजयहुई |

११९४ -चंदावर का युद्ध – इसमें मुहम्मद गौरी ने कन्नौज के राजा जयचंद को हराया |

१५२६ -पानीपत का प्रथम युद्ध -मुग़ल शासक बाबर और इब्राहीम लोधी के बीच |

१५२७ -खानवा का युद्ध – इसमें बाबर ने राणा सांगा को पराजित किया |

१५२९ -घाघरा का युद्ध -इसमें बाबर ने महमूद लोदी के नेतृत्व में अफगानों को हराया |

१५३९ – चौसा का युद्ध – इसमें शेरशाह सूरी ने हुमायु को हराया |

१५४० – कन्नौज (बिलग्राम का युद्ध) : इसमें फिर से शेरशाह सूरी ने हुमायूँ को हराया व भारत छोड़ने पर मजबूरकिया |

१५५६ – पानीपत का द्वितीय युद्ध :अकबर और हेमू के बीच |

१५६५ – तालीकोटा का युद्ध : इस युद्ध से विजयनगर साम्राज्य का अंत हो गया क्यूंकि बीजापुर,बीदर,अहमदनगर व गोलकुंडा की संगठित सेना ने लड़ी थी |

१५७६ – हल्दी घाटी का युद्ध : अकबर और राणा प्रताप के बीच, इसमें राणा प्रताप की हार हुई |

१७५७ – प्लासी का युद्ध : अंग्रेजो और सिराजुद्दौला के बीच, जिसमे अंग्रेजो की विजय हुई और भारत में अंग्रेजीशासन की नीव पड़ी |

१७६० – वांडीवाश का युद्ध : अंग्रेजो और फ्रांसीसियो के बीच, जिसमे फ्रांसीसियो की हार हुई |

१७६१ -पानीपत का तृतीय युद्ध :अहमदशाह अब्दाली और मराठो के बीच | जिसमे फ्रांसीसियों की हार हुई |

१७६४ -बक्सर का युद्ध : अंग्रेजो और शुजाउद्दौला, मीर कासिम एवं शाह आलम द्वितीय की संयुक्त सेना के बीच |अंग्रेजो की विजय हुई | अंग्रेजो को भारत वर्ष में सर्वोच्च शक्ति माना जाने लगा |

१७६७-६९ – प्रथम मैसूर युद्ध : हैदर अली और अंग्रेजो के बीच, जिसमे अंग्रेजो की हार हुई |

१७८०-८४ – द्वितीय मैसूर युद्ध : हैदर अली और अंग्रेजो के बीच, जो अनिर्णित छूटा |

१७९० – तृतीय आंग्ल मैसूर युद्ध : टीपू सुल्तान और अंग्रेजो के बीच लड़ाई संधि के द्वारा समाप्त हुई |

१७९९ – चतुर्थ आंग्ल मैसूर युद्ध : टीपू सुल्तान और अंग्रेजो के बीच , टीपू की हार हुई और मैसूर शक्ति का पतनहुआ |

१८४९ – चिलियान वाला युद्ध : ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी और सिखों के बीच हुआ था जिसमे सिखों की हार हुई |

१९६२ – भारत चीन सीमा युद्ध : चीनी सेना द्वारा भारत के सीमा क्षेत्रो पर आक्रमण | कुछ दिन तक युद्ध होने केबाद एकपक्षीय युद्ध विराम की घोषणा | भारत को अपनी सीमा के कुछ हिस्सों को छोड़ना पड़ा |

१९६५ – भारत पाक युद्ध : भारत और पाकिस्तान के बीच युद्ध जिसमे पाकिस्तान की हार हुई | फलस्वरूपबांग्लादेश एक स्वतन्त्र देश बना |

१९९९ -कारगिल युद्ध : जम्मू एवं कश्मीर के द्रास और कारगिल क्षेत्रो में पाकिस्तानी घुसपैठियों को लेकर हुए युद्धमें पुनः पाकिस्तान को हार का सामना करना पड़ा और भारतीयों को जीत मिली |

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Naked Power and the Power of Nakedness:  
Alexander (the Great) & the Gymnosophists

Vinay Lal

Of all the stories told about Alexander the Great, none perhaps is as colorful as the account of his encounter with the ‘naked philosophers’ of India who have come to be known in Western literature as gymnosophists.  Teaching a survey course on Indian history, I have recently had occasion to contemplate the nature of this storied encounter, and a chance reading of Vikram Chandra’s Red Earth and Pouring Rain (1995) has brought to mind the pleasures of thinking about what might have transpired in this meeting of East and West, military might with spiritual pride, the over-dressed and the under-dressed, the power of arms and the piercing strength of words.

Alexander is reputed to have been Aristotle’s pupil, and it is from the Greek philosopher that he might have imbibed some interest in books, philosophizing, and the nature of wisdom.  A Greek prince’s education at that time doubtless included something about India and its fabled riches.  World conqueror that Alexander sought to be, India was never far from his horizon; and it is in 326 BCE that he arrived in northwest India.  The story of his ‘invasion’ of India has been told often enough, and is not without some peculiar features, among them the fact that not a single contemporary Indian source could be bothered to note or comment on this supposedly earth-shaking event.  Though Alexander is described as having vanquished the Indian king Porus at the battle of the Jhelum [Hydaspes], it is said that Porus’s noble demeanor and valor so impressed Alexander that he allowed the defeated king to continue to govern his territories in Alexander’s name. 

Not along after this military triumph, Alexander’s troops mutinied and demanded that the journey back west be commenced.   The soldiers were weary with fighting; besides, if we recall the common perception of India, the country has a way of taking a toll of people.  The heat, dust, dirt, and mosquitoes of India have been known to enfeeble the sturdiest man!  However, according to Plutarch, one of the principal sources for Alexander’s military sojourn in India, the Greek soldiers had been instigated to revolt by a number of naked philosophers.  As Plutarch was to write, “He [Alexander] captured ten of the Gymnosophists who had done most to get Sabbas to revolt, and had made the most trouble for the Macedonians. These philosophers were reputed to be clever and concise in answering questions, and Alexander therefore put difficult questions to them, declaring that he would put to death him who first made an incorrect answer.”  There being ten gymnosophists, each was asked one question.  Which, the fifth one was asked, is older, day or night.  “Day, by one day”, came back the answer; “upon the king expressing amazement”, Plutarch writes, the sadhu added:  “hard questions must have hard answers.  Passing on, then to the sixth, Alexander asked how a man could be most loved; ‘if’, said the philosopher, ‘he is most powerful, and yet does not inspire fear.’”  That, one suspects, is precisely the kind of advice intended for a world conqueror.

In another version, that which has come down to us from Onesicritus, Alexander’s helsman, he was dispatched by his master to seek an audience with India’s wise men.  Onesicritus was perhaps a logical choice as he had been a student of Diogenes, the founder of the school of Cynics.  Onesicritus is viewed by many scholars as having made up dialogues between Alexander and the gymnosophists, not merely in an attempt to add color to the narrative, but in the interest of representing Alexander as akin to a philosopher warrior.  Arrian, writing in the second century AD, offered yet another account:  impressed by stories of the spiritual discipline and endurance of the gymnosophists, Alexander reportedly could not contain his desire to meet them.  Alexander even hoped to take one or more of them with him to Greece [and so he did], though the oldest of the gymnosophists, says Arrian, spurned Alexander’s offer with the observation that “he had no need of anything that Alexander could give, since he was contented with what he had”; moreover, “Alexander’s companions were wandering about over all that land and sea to no profit, and that there was no limit to their many wanderings”.

Alexander may have known, from long before, that philosophers, at least, did not live in awe or fear of him.  Many years before arriving in India, he had met Diogenes.  Excited to meet the famous philosopher, who was lounging about in the sun, Alexander asked Diogenes if he could do anything for him.  “Yes, stand out of my sunlight”, replied Diogenes.  So, we can well imagine that Alexander may not have been entirely surprised at being rebuffed by India’s philosophers.  The story of this encounter would be circulated, often in embellished form, over the next 2,000 years, a parable about the folly of conquest, the unmatched pleasures of simple living, the dangers of absolutism, and so on.  Perhaps the most recent demonstration of the power of this story to entice readers and serve as a modern parable is to be found in Red Earth and Pouring Rain(1995), Vikram Chandra’s debut novel.  Here are excerpts, without comment, of the conversation between a gymnosophist (sadhu) and the translator as imagined by Chandra:
                        Translator:  He wants to know why you’re naked.
                        Sadhu:  Ask him why he’s wearing clothes.
                        Translator:  He says he’s asking the questions here.
                        Sadhu:  Questions give birth only to other questions.
                        Translator:  He says people who get funny with him get executed.
                        Sadhu:  Why?
                        Translator:  Because he’s the King of Kings.  And he wants you to stop                                          asking questions.
                        Sadhu:  King of Kings?
Translator:  He came all the way from a place called Greece, killing other kings, so he’s King of Kings, see.
Sadhu:  Fool of Fools, Master-Clown of Clowns.  Maha-Idiot of idiots.
Translator:  You want me to tell him that?
Sadhu:  I said it, didn’t I?
Translator:  You’re crazier than he is.  He says he’ll kill you.  Right here, right now.
Sadhu:  I’ll have to die someday. [pp. 222-23]

Copyright:  Vinay Lal, 2009

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Indus Valley Civilization

See a more detailed description

Even at the beginning of this century it was believed that the first Indian cities of any importance developed only during the first millennium B.C. The discovery of the immense ruins of two cities at Mohenjadaro and Harappa in 1925 necessitated the rewriting of early Indian history. The cities were located on the banks of the Indus and the Ravi respectively and flourished during the third millennium B.C. No mention of these cities ismade in the ancient literature, and their script has not been deciphered to this day.

The houses of these cities were solidly built of bricks and many were multi-storied and equipped with bathrooms and lavatories. The high quality of the pottery, along with hoards of gold and silver found at Indus Valley sites, suggests great the accumulation of great wealth. The city was amazingly well planned with broad main streets and good secondary streets. There were enormous granaries which served as store-houses for the entire community. Finds in excavations of the Mesopotamian civilization indicate that trade flourished between the two civilizations. What is interesting, though, is the total lack of public monuments, obelisks or statues. Moreover, there was no single house which served as a palace, which can be construed as meaning that there were no great inequities in that society, and that a certain democratic spirit prevailed. It appears that merchants might have been individually responsible for safeguarding their wealth from marauding brigands.

The Indus valley civilization belongs to the Bronze Age. Excellent tools made of bronze (an alloy of copper and tin) have been discovered. They also exported copper, along with peacocks, ivory and cotton textiles in return for silver and other commodities. However, the inhabitants of the various towns and cities in the Indus Valley were essentially farmers, and depended on the periodic floods to irrigate their land. The grain would be collected and distributed at the temple, of which the granary formed a part. Adjacent to the finest group of houses and raised on a 10 metre high platforms are the "citadel" mounds. The Mohenjadaro citadel was a many- roomed building built around a large rectangular tank. This seems to have been used for ritual baths.

The twin cities of Harappa and Mohenjadaro, which are the two most famous of the Indian Valley civilization sites, are now in Pakistan; both seem to have been built fully planned, and have identical layouts. Neither changed till near the end of the period. Though there was a long period of gradual decay towards 1750 B.C., the actual end was sudden, and remains unexplained though the evidence suggests that the Indus may have changed its course and floods might have followed. Some cataclysmic event, in any case, appears to have struck Harappa, and the cities and town were emptied of their inhabitants. At Mohenjadaro, the city was burnt and the inhabitants killed, and people who were far less advanced than the inhabitants of the Indus Valley seem to have taken possession of the towns. Thus it is possible to argue that the way was paved for the Aryans by the victory of barbarism over an older and more advanced urban culture.

Sources:

Kosambi, D. D. The Culture and Civilization of Ancient India in Historical Outline. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1965

Thapar, Romila.A History of India, vol I. England: Penguin, 1966

An Introduction to Indian History

The Indus valley civilization saw its genesis in the holy land now known as India around 2500 BC. The people inhabiting the Indus River valley were thought to be Dravidians, whose descendants later migrated to the south of India. The deterioration of this civilization that developed a culture based on commerce and sustained by agricultural trade can be attributed to ecological changes. The second millennium BC was witness to the migration of the bucolic Aryan tribes from the North West frontier into the sub continent. These tribes gradually merged with their antecedent cultures to give birth to a new milieu.

The Aryan tribes soon started penetrating the east, flourishing along the Ganga and Yamuna Rivers. By 500 BC, the whole of northern India was a civilized land where people had knowledge of iron implements and worked as labor, voluntarily or otherwise. The early political map of India comprised of copious independent states with fluid boundaries, with increasing population and abundance of wealth fueling disputes over these boundaries.

Unified under the famous Gupta Dynasty, the north of India touched the skies as far as administration and the Hindu religion were concerned. Little wonder then, that it is considered to be India’s golden age. By 600 BC, approximately sixteen dynasties ruled the north Indian plains spanning the modern day Afghanistan to Bangladesh. Some of the most powerful of them were the dynasties ruling the kingdoms of Magadha, Kosla, Kuru and Gandhara.

Known to be the land of epics and legends, two of the world’s greatest epics find their birth in Indian settings - the Ramayana, depicting the exploits of lord Ram, and the Mahabharta detailing the war between Kauravas and Pandavas, both descendants of King Bharat. Ramayana traces lord Ram’s journey from exile to the rescue of his wife Sita from the demonic clutches of Ravana with the help of his simian companions. Singing the virtues of Dharma(duty), the Gita, one of the most priced scriptures in Indian Mythology, is the advice given by Shri Krishna to the grief laden Arjun, who is terrified at the thought of killing his kin, on the battle ground. 

Mahatma Gandhi revived these virtues again, breathing new life in them, during India’s freedom struggle against British Colonialism. An ardent believer in communal harmony, he dreamt of a land where all religions would be the threads to form a rich social fabric.

Other good resources for History of India

The Mughal Empire

Vinay Lal

The great grandson of Tamerlane, Babar, who on his mother's side was descended from the famous Genghiz Khan, came to India in 1526 at the request of an Indian governor who sought Babar's help in his fight against Ibrahim Lodi, the last head of the Delhi Sultanate. Babar defeated Lodi at Panipat, not far from Delhi, and so came to establish the Mughal Empire in India. Babar ruled until 1530, and was succeeded by his son Humayun, who gave the empire its first distinctive features. But it is Humayun's son, Akbar the Great, who is conventionally described as the glory of the empire. Akbar reigned from 1556 to 1605, and extended his empire as far to the west as Afghanistan, and as far south as the Godavari river. Akbar, though a Muslim, is remembered as a tolerant ruler, and he even started a new faith, Din-i-Ilahi, which was an attempt to blend Islam with Hinduism, Christianity, Jainism, and other faiths. He won over the Hindus by naming them to important military and civil positions, by conferring honors upon them, and by marrying a Hindu princess.

Rejoicing at birth of Prince Salim (Jahangir). Mughal, c. 1590. (Click for a large image view.)

Akbar was succeeded by his son Salim, who took the title of Jahangir. In his reign (1605-1627), Jahangir consolidated the gains made by his father. The courtly culture of the Mughals flourished under his rule; like his great grand-father, Babar, he had an interest in gardens, and Mughal painting probably reached its zenith in Jahangir's time. Jahangir married Nur Jahan, "Light of the World", in 1611. Shortly after his death in October 1627, his son, Shah Jahan, succeeded to the throne. He inherited a vast and rich empire; and at mid-century this was perhaps the greatest empire in the world, exhibiting a degree of centralized control rarely matched before. Shah Jahan left behind an extraordinarily rich architectural legacy, which includes the Taj Mahal and the old city of Delhi, Shahjahanabad. As he apparently lay dying in 1658, a war of succession broke out between his four sons. The two principal claimants to the throne were Dara Shikoh, who was championed by the those nobles and officers who were committed to the eclectic policies of previous rulers, and Aurangzeb, who was favored by powerful men more inclined to turn the Mughal Empire into an Islamic state subject to the laws of the Sharia. It is Aurangzeb who triumphed, and though the Mughal Empire saw yet further expansion in the early years of his long reign (1658-1707), by the later part of the seventeenth century the empire was beginning to disintegrate.

Aurangzeb remains a highly controversial figure, and no monarch has been more subjected to the communalist reading of Indian history. He is admired by Muslim historians for enforcing the law of the Sharia and for disavowing the policies pursued by Akbar; among Hindus, laymen and historians alike, he is remembered as a Muslim fanatic and bigot. In the event, Aurangzeb's far-flung empire eventually eluded his grasp, and considerable disaffection appears to have been created among the peasantry. After Aurangzeb's death in 1707, many of his vassals established themselves as sovereign rulers, and so began the period of what are called "successor states". The Mughal Empire survived until 1857, but its rulers were, after 1803, pensioners of the East India Company. The last emperor, the senile Bahadur Shah Zafar, was put on trial for allegedly leading the rebels of the 1857 mutiny and for fomenting sedition. He was convicted and transported to Rangoon, to spend the remainder of his life on alien soil.

The Mughal Empire, 1526 to 1707 Source: F. Robinson, Atlas of the Islamic World since 1500 (Oxford, 19822), p.59.

Further Reading:

Habib, Irfan. The Agrarian System of Mughal India. London, 1963.

Habib, Irfan. An Atlas of the Mughal Empire. Delhi, 1982.

Qureshi, I. H. The Administration of the Mughal Empire. Karachi, 1966.

Richard, John F. The Mughal Empire. Vol. I, Part 5, of the New Cambridge History of India. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1993.

Copyright, Vinay Lal 2001
This article has been translated into Romanian and be accessed at:
http://webhostinggeeks.com/science/mughals-sscnet-ro
A Polish translation of this article can be found at:
http://www.pkwteile.de/wissen/imperium-mogolow

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BRITISH INDIA
[page 1 of 2]

See also [Mahatma Gandhi] [Quit India Movement] [Dandi March][Hill Stations]

See additional papers and references at the end of page two

The British presence in India dates back to the early part of the seventeenth century. On 31 December 1600, Elizabeth, then the monarch of the United Kingdom, acceded to the demand of a large body of merchants that a royal charter be given to a new trading company, "The Governor and Company of Merchants of London, Trading into the East-Indies." Between 1601-13, merchants of the East India Company took twelve voyages to India, and in 1609 William Hawkins arrived at the court of Jahangir to seek permission to establish a British presence in India. Hawkins was rebuffed by Jahangir, but Sir Thomas Roe, who presented himself before the Mughal Emperor in 1617, was rather more successful. Two years later, Roe gained Jahangir's permission to build a British factory in Surat, and in 1639, this was followed by the founding of Fort St. George (Madras). Despite some setbacks, such as the Company's utter humiliation at the hands of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, with whom the Company went to war between 1688-91, the Company never really looked back.

Gateway of India, Bombay

In 1757, on account of the British victory at Plassey, where a military force led by Robert Clive defeated the forces of the Nawab of Bengal,Siraj-ud-daulah, the East India Company found itself transformed from an association of traders to rulers exercising political sovereignty over a largely unknown land and people. Less than ten years later, in 1765, the Company acquired the Diwani of Bengal, or the right to collect revenues on behalf of the Mughal Emperor, in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. The consolidation of British rule after the initial military victories fell to Warren Hastings, who did much to dispense with the fiction that the Mughal Emperor was still the sovereign to whom the Company was responsible. Hastings also set about to make the British more acquainted with Indian history, culture, and social customs; but upon his return to England, he would be impeached for high crimes and misdemeanors. His numerous successors, though fired by the ambition to expand British territories in India, were also faced with the task of governance. British rule was justified, in part, by the claims that the Indians required to be civilized, and that British rule would introduce in place of Oriental despotism and anarchy a reliable system of justice, the rule of law, and the notion of 'fair play'. Certain Indian social or religious practices that the British found to be abhorrent were outlawed, such as sati in 1829, and an ethic of 'improvement' was said to dictate British social policies. In the 1840s and 1850s, under the governal-generalship of Dalhousie and then Canning, more territories were absorbed into British India, either on the grounds that the native rulers were corrupt, inept, and notoriously indifferent about the welfare of their subjects, or that since the native ruler had failed to produce a biological male heir to the throne, the territory was bound to "lapse" into British India upon the death of the ruler. Such was the fate of Sambalpur (1849), Baghat (1850), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur (1854), and -- most tragically -- Awadh (1856). The Nawab of Awadh [also spelled as Oudh], Wajid Ali Shah, was especially reviled by the British as the worst specimen of the Oriental Despot, more interested in nautch girls, frivolous amusements -- kite-flying, cock-fighting, and the like -- and sheer indolence than in the difficult task of governance. The British annexation of Awadh, and the character of the Nawab, were made the subjects of an extraordinary film by Satyajit Ray, entitled The Chess Players ("Shatranj ke Khilari").

An English baby girl being carried on a palanquin by Indian bearers, on the road fo Nainital. Photograph dated 1904.

Shortly after the annexation of Awadh, the Sepoy Mutiny, more appropriately described as the Indian Rebellion of 1857-58, broke out. This was by far the greatest threat posed to the British since the beginnings of their acquisition of an empire in India in 1757, and within the space of a few weeks in May large swathes of territory in the Gangetic plains had fallen to the rebels. Atrocities were committed on both sides, and conventionally the rebellion is viewed as marking the moment when the British would always understand themselves as besieged by hostile natives, just as the Indians understood that they could not forever be held in submission. If in the early days of the Company's rule a legend was constructed around the Black Hole of Calcutta, so signifying the villainy of Indians, the Rebellion of 1857-58 gave rise to an elaborate mythography on both sides. Delhi was recaptured by British troops in late 1857, the Emperor Bahadur Shah, last of the Mughals, was put on trial for sedition and predictably convicted, and by mid-1858 the Rebellion had been entirely crushed. The East India Company was abolished, though John Stuart Mill, the Commissioner of Correspondence at India House, London, and the unacknowledged formulator of British policy with respect to the native states, furnished an elaborate but ultimately unsuccessful plea on behalf of the Company. India became a Crown colony, to be governed directly by Parliament, and henceforth responsibility for Indian affairs would fall upon a member of the British cabinet, the Secretary of State for India, while in India itself the man at the helm of affairs would continue to be the Governor-General, known otherwise in his capacity as the representative of the monarch as the Viceroy of India.

The proclamation of Queen Victoria, in which she promised that she and her officers would work for the welfare of their Indian subjects, ushered in the final phase of the British Raj. Among Indians, there were debates surrounding female education, widow remarriage, the age of consent for marriage, and more generally the status of women; and in the meanwhile, with increasing emphasis on English education, and the expansion of the government, larger numbers of Indians joined government service. There was, similarly, a considerable increase in both English-language and vernacular journalism, and in 1885 the Indian National Congress, at first an association comprised largely of lawyers and some other professionals, was founded in order that educated Indians might gain something of a voice in the governance of their own country. However, nationalist sentiments could not be confined within the parameters set by a gentlemanly organization such as the Congress, and both in Maharashtra, where the radicals were led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and in Bengal armed revolutionaries attempted to carry out a campaign of terror and assassination directed at British officials and institutions. In 1905, on the grounds that the governance of Bengal had become impossible owing to the large size of the presidency, the British partitioned Bengal, and so provoked the first major resistance to British rule and administrative policies in the aftermath of the Rebellion of 1857-58. It is during the Swadeshi movement that Indians deployed various strategies of non-violent resistance, boycott, strike and non-cooperation, and eventually the British had to agree to revoke the partition of Bengal. The partition itself had been attempted partly with a view to dividing the largely Muslim area of East Bengal from the western part of Bengal, which was predominantly Hindu, and the communalist designs of the British were clearly demonstrated as well in their encouragement of the Muslim League, a political formation that came into existence in 1907, on the supposition that the interests of the Muslims could not be served by the Indian National Congress. The capital of the country was shifted as well from Calcutta to Delhi, where a new set of official buildings designed to reflect imperial splendor led to the creation of New Delhi.

[continued on page 2]

BRITISH INDIA
[page 2 of 2] [Back to page 1]

See additional papers and references at the end of this page

Memsahib in Rickshaw, photograph from South India, C. 1895. (Click image for a large view.)

During World War I, when Britain declared that India was at war with Germany as well, large number of Indian troops served overseas, and the declaration by the Secretary of State Montagu in 1917 to the effect that it would be the intent of the Government of India to increase gradually Indian participation in the administration of the country was seen as an encouragement of Indian ambitions of eventual self-rule. But following the conclusion of the war, the British sought to introduce draconian legislation to contain the activity of people presumed to be political extremists, and the Punjab disturbances of 1919, including the notorious massacre by General Dyer of nearly 400 unarmed Indians at the Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar in April, marked the emergence of a nation-wide movement against British rule. The events of 1919 also brought to the fore Mahatma Gandhi, who would henceforth be the uncrowned king of the Indian nationalist movement. Gandhi led the non-cooperation movement against the British in 1920-22, as well as a campaign of civil disobedience in 1930-31, and in 1942 he issued the call to the British to 'Quit India'. Negotiations for some degree of Indian independence, led by Gandhi, first took place in 1930 at the Round Table Conferences in London, but shortly thereafter the Congress decided to adopt a resolution calling for purna swaraj, or complete independence from British rule. Meanwhile, relations between the Hindus and Muslims had deteriorated, and during the latter years of World War II, when the leaders of the Congress, including Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Sardar Patel were incarcerated, the Muslim League, which declared itself in support of the British war effort, had a free hand to spread the message of Muslim separatism. When, in the aftermath of the war, and the triumph of the Labor party, the British Prime Minister Clement Atlee declared that the British would grant India its independence, negotiations were commenced with all the major political parties and communities, including the Sikhs, the Congress, and the Muslim League. In launching Direct Action Day in 1946, which led to immense communal killings in Calcutta, the Muslim League sought to convey the idea that an undivided India was no longer a possibility; and the eventual attainment of independence from British rule on 15 August 1947 was accompanied not only by the creation of the new state of Pakistan, comprised of Muslim-majority areas in both the eastern and western parts of India, but by the unprecedented horrors of partition. At least 500,000 people are estimated to have been killed, and many women were abducted or raped; and it is estimated that no fewer than 11 million Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs crossed borders, which to this day remains the single largest episode of migration in history.

Though the political narrative dominates in accounts of the history of British India, as in the preceding pages, the social and cultural histories of the British Raj are no less interesting. There are doubtless enduring, though not necessarily desirable, influences of British rule in contemporary India. The elites of the country write and converse largely in English, and are connected amongst themselves, and to the larger world outside, through the English language. The Constitution of India, howsoever noble a document, has been decisively shaped by the Government of India Act of 1935, which was scarcely designed to alleviate the distress of the predominantly underprivileged population of India, and not much thought seems to have been given to considering how appropriate a parliamentary system, with roughly the same number of seats in the lower (elected) house, the Lok Sabha, as in the House of Commons, might be for India when it is infinitely larger than Britain. The political and administrative institutions of independent India operate on the assumption that the country is still under colonial rule, and that the subjects are to have no voice in governance, unless they make an extreme fuss. The legal structure was handed down by the British, and the presumption remains that it does not exist to serve the common person, any more than does the vast apparatus of 'law and order': it is no accident that the police always arrive late in the popular Hindi film, when communities have already successfully taken the law into their own hands. The only innovations which have of been use in meeting forms of extreme oppression and injustice, such as Public Interest Litigation, are those which have effected a departure from the colonial model of justice.

India inherited from the British its present university system, and the origins of the summer migration of the middle class and elites to hill stations date back to the early nineteenth century. Social institutions such as clubs and gymkhanas, which persist down to the present day, were a critical part of British life, as E. M. Forster's A Passage to India, Orwell's Burmese Days, and the novels of John Masters and Paul Scott so amply suggest. Though the Indian languages were well developed before the arrival of the British in India, the standardization of these languages, and the creation of the first grammars and dictionaries, was achieved under British rule. The influential school of Kalighat painting emerged in late nineteenth century, and can scarcely be understood without a reference to the creation of a modern market, and similarly the printing press, which arrived in India in the sixteenth century, heralded the age of mechanical reproduction in India. In sports, the abiding passion remains cricket (once a preeminently colonial game), and the favorite drink of the Indian middle class male remains scotch and soda. One could point to a thousand different manifestations of the British presence in India, and slowly, one hopes, our histories will also alert us to the transformations wrought in British institutions and practices in post-independent India.

Other related publications on the history of British India by Vinay Lal:

"The Saga of Subhas Bose", review of Leonard Gordon's Brothers Against the Raj, Economic and Political Weekly 27, no. 4 (25 January 1992):155-156.

"The Incident of the Crawling Lane: Women in the Punjab Disturbances of 1919", Genders, no. 16 (Spring 1993):35-60.

"Surat Under the Raj", review of Douglas Haynes, Rhetoric and Ritual in Colonial India, Economic and Political Weekly 28, no. 18 (1 May 1993):863-865.

"Imperial Nostalgia", review of The Raj: India and the British 1600-1947, by C. A. Bayly et al.,Economic and Political Weekly 28, nos. 29-30 (17-24 July 1993):1511-13.

"Beyond Alterity", review of Sara Suleri's The Rhetoric of English India, Economic and Political Weekly 30, no. 5 (4 February 1995):254-55.

"The Courtesan and the Indian Novel", a review-article on Hasan Shah, The Nautch Girl, and Mirza M. H. Ruswa, Umra Jan Ada, Courtesan of Lucknow, Indian Literature, no. 139 (Sept-Oct 1995):164-70.

"Masculinity and Femininity in The Chess Players: Sexual Moves, Colonial Manoeuvres, and an Indian Game", in Manushi: A Journal of Women and Society, nos. 92-93 (Jan.-April 1996):41-50.

"Good Nazis and just scholars: much ado about the British Empire", review of P. J. Marshall, ed.,Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire, Race and Class 38, no. 4 (April-June 1997):89-101.

"Hill Stations: Pinnacles of the Raj." Review article on Dale Kennedy, The Magic Mountains: Hill Stations and the British Raj, Capitalism, Nature, Socialism 8, no. 3 (September 1997):123-132.

"John Stuart Mill and India", a review-article. New Quest, no. 54 (January-February 1998):54-64.

"Everyday Crime, Native Mendacity and the Cultural Psychology of Justice in Colonial India."Studies in History (New Series) 15, no. 1 (1999):145-66.

"Walking with the Subalterns, Riding with the Academy: The Curious
Ascendancy of Indian History", Studies in History (New Series) 17, no. 1
(2001), pp. 101-133.

"Subaltern Studies and Its Critics: Debates over Indian History",
History and Theory 40, no. 1 (February 2001), pp. 135-48.

"Reading between the Frames: The Burden and Freedom of
Photography", Economic and Political Weekly 35, no. 14 (1 April 2000),
pp. 1167-1170.

"Anti-terrorist Legislation: A Comparative Study of India, UK and Sri Lanka",
Lokayan Bulletin 11, no. 1 (July-August 1994), pp. 5-24.

Review of Dipesh Chakrabarty, Habitations of Modernity (2002), in Journal of Interdisciplinary History 35, no. 2 (Autumn 2004):343-45.

Review of Antoinette Burton, Dwelling in the Archive (2002), in Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly 27, no. 3 (Summer 2004):673-676.

Review of Michael Gottlob, Historical Thinking in South Asia (2003), in Indian Economic and Social History Review 41, no. 4 (2004), pp. 501-4.

"Mapping India", review of J. B. Harley and David Woodward, eds., Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and South Asian Societies, The Book Review 17, no. 9 (Sept. 1993):8-9.

27. Organisation Of International Information Systems And Programmes P- 05. Information Sources, Systems and Services

इस ब्लॉग्स को सृजन करने में आप सभी से सादर सुझाव आमंत्रित हैं , कृपया अपने सुझाव और प्रविष्टियाँ प्रेषित करे , इसका संपूर्ण कार्य क्षेत्र विश्व ज्ञान समुदाय हैं , जो सभी प्रतियोगियों के कॅरिअर निर्माण महत्त्वपूर्ण योगदान देगा ,आप अपने सुझाव इस मेल पत्ते पर भेज सकते हैं - chandrashekhar.malav@yahoo.com

27. Organisation Of International Information Systems And Programmes

P- 05. Information Sources, Systems and Services *

By :Dr.Renu Arora,Paper Coordinator

Home
 Content

    1. Introduction
    2. International Information Organisations
    3. IFLA- International Federation Of Library Associations

     3.0 IFLA- International Federation Of Library Associations
     3.1 Aims
     3.2 Core activities
     3.3 Divisions and Sections
     3.4 Regional Activities
     3.5 Special Interest Groups
     3.6 Publications 

    4. UNESCO 

     4.0 UNESCO
     4.1 Communication and Information Sector (CI)
     4.2 Networks
     4.3 Future Programmes 

    5. International Labor Organization 

     5.0 International Labor Organization
     5.1 ILO Library
     5.2 Labordoc 

    6. International Standards Organization 

     6.0 International Standards Organization
     6.1 Standards Catalogue
     6.2 Online Collection
     6.3 Graphical Symbols
     6.4 Library and Information Science related Standards 

    7. International Council On Archives
    8. World Health Organization
    9. World Intellectual Property Organization
    10. International Monetary Fund
    11. World Trade Organisation
    12. International Council For Science
    13. International Council For Scientific And Technical Information
    14. International Nuclear Information System
    15. The International Information System For The Agricultural Sciences And Technology
    16. UNEP-INFOTERRA
    17. MEDLINE
    18. CAS – Chemical Abstracts Service
    19. INSPEC
    20. Web Of Science
    21. Biosis Previews
    Conclusion 

1. Introduction

A large number of international organizations in various subject areas are engaged in the development of library and information services. These also include global information systems and organisations devoted to collection, processing and dissemination of information in various countries. Use of computers for location, collection, storage and processing of information has opened up the possibilities of creating online access and machine-readable databases which have led to the development of international/global information systems. This development has been harnessed further by the very concept of decentralized input of information from the member countries of a participating system, where centralized processing of information is possible through computers, while decentralized dissemination of information is again possible at the users’ end.

In this Module we will discuss some international organisations operating at international level in various disciplines.  It was after the World War II, that most of the governments realized the advantages of maintaining international relations in some spheres through the international organizations. This is due to the fact that while retrieving information, the library professionals had been facing several problems as the available information services were not adequate for most of the users. The international organisations took the task to  identify these problems in the information gap by contributing towards coordination, promotion and development of appropriate  information. These organisations include the governmental bodies, non-governmental bodies as well as some voluntary professional organisations. A major role in this regard has been that of the UNESCO’s Communication and Information Sector which has contributed towards development of modern library facilities in developing and developed countries.

2. International Information Organisations

Encyclopaedia Britannica defines an International organization as ‘an institution drawing membership from at least three states, having activities in several states, and whose members are held together by a formal agreement.’ These are of two types, namely, international governmental organizations (IGOs), which have been established by intergovernmental agreements and whose members are states, and secondly, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), whose members are associations or individuals.

According to European Commission an international organization s ‘a body that promotes voluntary cooperation and coordination between or among its members.’ An international organization is therefore an organization with an international membership, scope, or presence.

There are a large number of such organisations operating at international level. Some of the major international organisations covered in this module are: IFLA, UNESCO, ICA, ILO, ISO, WHO and WIPO. The information systems and programmes listed here are the INIS, AGRIS, MEDLARS/MEDLINE, CAS, INSPEC, BIOSIS, etc. In most of these organisations or  systems, the input to the system is made available by the Member Country from where information originates, leading to reliability, timeliness and comprehensibility. The input thus collected nationally is entered in prescribed standardized format, usually a machine readable format to ensure compatibility. The resultant output is available internationally for every member country and its users.

In the following sections, some international organisations which every library and information science professional should be familiar with are discussed briefly. The details of each of the covered organisation are available in the organisation’s website.

3.0 IFLA- International Federation Of Library Associations

The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) is the leading international body representing the interests of library and information services and their users. It is the global voice of the library and information profession.

Located in The Hague, The Netherlands, IFLA was founded in Edinburgh on 30 September 1927 during the International Congress of Libraries.  The IFLA was established as a small association of mainly national library associations and academic libraries and has now grown into the only major international organisation for library professionals. It has now  1500 Members in approximately 150 countries around the world. The Federation was one of the first international non-profit, non-governmental organizations aiming to further the cause of librarianship. Its primary function is to provide library professional throughout the world with a general forum for international contacts and exchange of ideas and experiences, principally in the field of bibliography.

IFLA's purpose is to promote international understanding, cooperation, discussion, research and development in all fields of library activity, including bibliography, information services and the education of personnel, and provide a body through which librarianship can be represented in matters of international interest.

3.1 Aims

IFLA is an independent, international, non-governmental, not-for-profit organization. Its  aims are to:

• Promote high standards of provision and delivery of library and information services,
• Encourage widespread understanding of the value of good library & information services, and
• Represent the interests of our members throughout the world. 

3.2 Core activities

Issues common to library and information services around the world are the concern of the IFLA Core Activities. Directed by the Professional Committee, the objectives and projects of the Core Activities relate to the Federation's Programme and the priorities of the Divisions and Sections. Presently, the core activities of IFLA are:

a)    ALP Action for Development through Libraries Programme

b)    PAC - Preservation and Conservation

c)    ICADS - IFLA-CDNL Alliance for Digital Strategies

d)    IFLA UNIMARC

e)    FAIFE- Free Access to Information and Freedom of Expression

f)     CLM - Committee on Copyright and other Legal Matters

g)    COS- Committee on Standards

The ALP has very wide scope, concentrating on the broad range of concerns specific to the developing world. The others programmes cover current, internationally important issues.

3.3 Divisions and Sections

Sections are the primary focus for the Federation's work in a particular type of library and information service, in an aspect of library and information science or in a region. All IFLA Members are entitled to register for any of the 43 Sections of their choice. Once registered, voting Members have the right to nominate specialists for the Standing Committee of the Sections for which they are registered. The Standing Committee is the key group of professionals who develop and monitor the programmes of the Sections. Sections are grouped into five Divisions.

The  Divisions of IFLA are:

(i)    Library Types

(ii)   Library Collections

(iii)  Library Services

(iv) Support of the Profession

(v)  Regional Activities

3.4 Regional Activities

Three Regional Sections (Africa, Asia and Oceania, and Latin America and the Caribbean) make up the Division of Regional Activities (Division 5). They are concerned with all aspects of library and information services in their regions. They promote IFLA activities and work closely with the IFLA Regional Offices, located in Pretoria, South Africa; Singapore and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 

3.5 Special Interest Groups

Special Interest Groups (SIG)are set up, on a temporary and informal basis, to enable groups of Members to discuss specific professional, or social and cultural issues relating to the profession. Presently there are 15 SIGs. Discussion Groups may be established for two-years, once renewable, and must be sponsored by a Section. 

3.6 Publications

The results of the programmes developed by IFLA's professional groups are recorded and disseminated in its following publications.

• IFLA Journal 
• The IFLA Annual Report
• The IFLA publication series on Bibliographic Control
• The IFLA Professional Reports

IFLA Website: http://www.ifla.org/about

4.0 UNESCO

UNESCO was established in 1946 as a specialized  agency of the United  Nations concerned with information matters. The objectives of UNESCO at the time of its established were: encouraging international intellectual cooperation, speeding up development through operational assistance to Member States, and promoting peace, human rights and international understanding. UNESCO’s earliest activities of concern to the library profession  were  to help Member States rebuild their libraries destroyed during World War II. UNESCO’s efforts to assist its Member States in the development of their documentation, library and archival services initially indicated five areas, which were:

• Principles and Structure of Documentation, Library and Archives Services
• Internationalization  of Documentation, Library and Archives Services
• Professional Training
• Book Promotion
• The Future                             

UNESCO, since its creation  has contributed to the reinforcement of these types of services. As libraries  are essential components of any strategy aimed at improving information access, both for the public at large and for specialised groups. 

4.1 Communication and Information Sector (CI)

The development of information technologies, and in particular the Internet, has created a completely new environment in which the role of traditional information services must be thoroughly revised. The potential of networking, cooperation and digitisation modify substantially the functions of acquiring, storing and disseminating information and knowledge. Here, special attention must be paid to the least developed countries so that they do not lag behind technological advances.

With this in view, the Communication and Information Sector (CI) of UNESCO was established in its present form in 1990. Its programmes are completely based on the UNESCO’s Constitution, which are to promote the “free flow of ideas by word and image.”  It consists of:

• Freedom of Expression and Media Development
• Knowledge Societies Division

The CI Sector is also the secretariat for two intergovernmental programmes, namely,  the International Programme for the Development of Communication (IPDC) and the Information for All Programme (IFAP). The objectives of the Sector’s programmes are:

• Promoting the free flow of ideas and universal access to information
• Promoting the expression of pluralism and cultural diversity in the media and world information networks
• Promoting access for all to ICTs

In addition to the Regular Programmes, the CI Sector implements various inter-regional, regional and national projects with extra-budgetary funding mainly in Africa, the Arab States, Asia, the Pacific, Latin America and the Caribbean. The Sector collaborates with UN agencies, bilateral development agencies, international and regional non-governmental agencies.

4.2 Networks

The development of networks ensures equitable access to information services and contents especially in the public domain as well as facilitating the free flow of information.While  promoting the development of electronic networks, UNESCO lays emphasis on policies and strategies to develop the most appropriate methodology to meet the specific needs of the users in various countries.

Through its global and regional networks, UNESCO carries out social development, democratization and good governance in member countries. By providing access to relevant information in an interactive format and in an easily assimilated form, UNESCO fosters capacities to acquire new knowledge and skills.

Some of the information networks of UNESCO are:

APIN – Asia Pacific Information Network

INFOLAC - Information Society Programme for Latin America and the Caribbean

MEDLIB- Internet-based virtual library

RINAF - Regional Information Society Network for Africa

UNAL – UNESCO Network of Associated Libraries

ORBICOM – Network of UNESCO Chairs in Communication

ACCESS-net - Association of Computer Centres for Exploiting Sustainable Synergy

4.3 Future Programmes

UNESCO has several approved programmes and activities for the future. Some of these programmes related to IC Sector are:

a)    Promoting freedom of expression and information

b)    Promoting an enabling environment for freedom of expression to foster development, democracy, and dialogue for a culture of peace and non-violence

c)    Fostering information and communication capacities for universal access to knowledge to bridge the digital divide

d)    Supporting Member States in empowering citizens through universal access to knowledge and the preservation of information, including documentary heritage

e)    To further efforts to have open access, free and open source software and open educational resources) and innovative ICTs.

f)     World’s documentary heritage protected and digitized, capacities of Member States strengthened to that effect, preservation and digitization strategies and principles adopted and archives and libraries reinforced as centres of education, and learning and information.

5.0 International Labor Organization

The International Labor Organization (ILO) is the UN specialized agency which seeks the promotion of social justice and internationally recognized human and labour rights. It was founded in 1919 and is the only surviving major creation of the Treaty of Versailles which brought the League of Nations into being and it became the first specialized agency of the UN in 1946.The main aims of the ILO are to promote rights at work, encourage decent employment opportunities, enhance social protection and strengthen dialogue on work-related issues.

The ILO formulates international labour standards in the form of Conventions and Recommendations setting minimum standards of basic labour rights: freedom of association, the right to organize, collective bargaining, abolition of forced labour, equality of opportunity and treatment, and other standards regulating conditions across the entire spectrum of work related issues. It provides technical assistance primarily in the fields of vocational training and vocational rehabilitation; employment policy; labour administration; labour law and industrial relations; working conditions; management development; cooperatives; social security; labour statistics and occupational safety and health. It promotes the development of independent employers' and workers' organizations and provides training and advisory services to those organizations. Within the UN system, the ILO has a unique tripartite structure with workers and employers participating as equal partners with governments in the work of its governing organs.

5.1 ILO Library

The ILO Library is the world's leading library on the world of work. It serves as a knowledge base of key information on work issues, sustainable livelihoods, and the work-related aspects of economic and social development, technological change and human rights.

The Library's collections include books, journals, reports, legislation and statistics covering all aspects of work and sustainable livelihoods, and the work-related aspects of economic and social development, human rights, and technological change in countries around the world. Much of the collection focuses on developing and transition countries, and a special effort is made to acquire material published in developing countries. The Library maintains the world's most significant print collection of national labour statistics and one of the most complete collections of official gazettes and labour legislation.  The Library provides access to this knowledge base through its database,  Labordoc.  In addition, research assistance and information services are also available.

The ILO Library is the core repository of ILO publications produced in Geneva and in the ILO’s offices around the world.  ILO staff in Headquarters and the field, governments, workers' and employers’ organizations and other partner institutions, outside researchers and the general public to make use of the Library as a key resource on the world of work, and as an access point for information on ILO research, ILO standards, labour law, and labour statistics. 

5.2 Labordoc

Labordoc contains references to a wide range of print and electronic publications, including journal articles, from countries around the world, on all aspects of work and sustainable livelihoods, and the work-related aspects of economic and social developments and human rights. Labordoc provides an ever increasing number of links to online publications available on the internet.

6.0 International Standards Organization

ISO (International Organization for Standardization), located in Geneva,  is the world’s largest developer of voluntary International Standards. International Standards give state of the art specifications for products, services and good practice, helping to make industry more efficient and effective. Developed through global consensus, they help to break down barriers to international trade. Founded in 1947, ISO develops International Standards, and since then have published more than 19,500 International Standards covering almost all aspects of technology and business. ISO is, therefore,  a network of national standards bodies. Also it is an independent, non-governmental organization made up of members from the national standards bodies of 161 countries.  These national standards bodies take up the ISO membership and they represent standards organisation in their country. Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is the representing member from India.

ISO International Standards ensure that products and services are safe, reliable and of good quality. For business, they are strategic tools that reduce costs by minimizing waste and errors and increasing productivity. They help organisations  to access new markets, level the playing field for developing countries and facilitate free and fair global trade. These standards are developed by the people who need them, through a consensus process. Experts from all over the world develop the standards that are required by their sector. This means they reflect a wealth of international experience and knowledge.

Access to the ISO standards is available from the ISO Store, which makes available the standards through the Standards Catalogue, Online Collection and Graphical symbols.

6.1 Standards Catalogue

As already mentioned, ISO has developed over 19,500 International Standards and all are included in the ISO Standards catalogue. There are three ways to find the standard one is looking for:

(i)    Browse by ICS (International Classification for Standards). ICS is a way of classifying standards into fields such as electrical engineering or paper technology.

(ii)   Browse by TC (technical committees). ISO standards are developed by experts from TCs focusing on all kinds of different subjects from screw threads to shipping technology. By clicking on the TC you can see all the standards published by this group of experts.

(iii)  Search the standards catalogue using a key word or the number of the standard (all ISO standards are numbered) for example ‘quality management’ or ‘9001’ to find ISO 9001. 

6.2 Online Collection

An online collection is a set of standards available online. When a library  buys an online collection, an yearly subscription to the standards is to be paid, which are available to read online via the  library in the Online Browsing Platform (OBP).

Online collections have many benefits, including:

(i)    Up to date content

(ii)   Easy navigation between standards 

Accessible anywhere

6.3 Graphical Symbols

Graphical symbols can be purchased singly (search using the Online Browsing Platform - OBP) or as part of a collection.Collections of graphical symbols are sets of symbols covering certain uses or themes. When one buys a collection, one pays for anyearly subscription to the symbols, which are available to view and download as many times as needed (in EPS and AI format) via library in the OBP.

Benefits of buying a collection of graphical symbols are:

• Multiple symbols for a reduced price 
• Up to date content
• High resolution formats

6.4 Library and Information Science related Standards

ISO has developed several standards related to library and information science activities. This is to ensure compatibility in various organisations as far as library activities are concerned.  Some of the newly developed standards are:

1. ISO 25964-2:2013, Information and documentation -- Thesauri and interoperability with other vocabularies -- Part 2: Interoperability with other vocabularies
   Edition 1 published 2013-03-04
   
2. ISO 2789:2013, Information and documentation -- International library statistics
   Edition 5 published 2013-08-21
   
3. ISO/TR 14873:2013, Information and documentation -- Statistics and quality issues for web archiving
   Edition 1 published 2013-11-25

7. International Council On Archives

The International Council on Archives (ICA), since 1948, is dedicated to the effective management of records and the preservation, care and use of the world's archival heritage through its representation of records and archive professionals across the globe. Archives are the documentary by-product of human activity and as such are   irreplaceable witness to past events, underpinning democracy, the identity of individuals and communities, and human rights. But they are also fragile and vulnerable. The ICA strives to protect and ensure access to archives through advocacy, setting standards, professional development, and enabling dialogue between archivists, policy makers, creators and users of archives.

The ICA is a neutral, non-governmental organisation, funded by its membership, which operates through the activities of that diverse membership with approximately 1400 members in 199 countries. The ICA is a truly international organisation which works with decision-makers at the highest level. As well as working closely with intergovernmental bodies such as UNESCO and the Council of Europe. The ICA has close connections with other non-governmental organisations too.

1 Resources

Sharing knowledge is the chief motto of ICA as through sharing knowledge one learns, builds relationships and ultimately achieve more together than working individually.  The ICA believes that open access to information is fundamental for both record professionals and the communities they serve.  The ICA is the repository for a wide range of professional knowledge and experience and it seeks to make that knowledge as accessible and relevant as possible for all, from new professionals to heads of national repositories, from records creators to records users.

The Multilingual Archival Terminology is an interactive, online, database of archival terminology usage.

Online Resource Centre - All documents published before 31 December 2010 are available on free access.  After that date, publications are reserved for members of the organization, other than in a few exceptional cases.  Some  resources can, therefore, be downloaded by everyone, while others can only be accessed by members of the organization. Various articles, papers, proceeding and newsletters are also accessible online from ICA.

2 Networking

ICA has  four types of membership which  is split between institutional (central or national archival institutions, professional associations, international organizations and business archives) and individual (any professional archivist or student archivist). All members are equally valued by ICA and benefit from being part of an international network where they can learn about professional practice, exchange views and news, seek help and give archives a strong profile in the international community 

8. World Health Organization

Founded in 1948, the World Health Organization (WHO) is the directing and coordinating authority for health within the United Nations System with 194 Member States. It is responsible for providing leadership on global health matters, shaping the health research agenda, setting norms and standards, articulating evidence-based policy options, providing technical support to countries and monitoring and assessing health trends.

More than 7000 people from over 150 countries work for the Organization in 150 WHO offices in countries, territories and areas, six regional offices and at the headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. In addition to medical doctors, public health specialists, scientists and epidemiologists, WHO staff include people trained to manage administrative, financial, and information systems, as well as experts in the fields of health statistics, economics and emergency relief.

1 WHO Library

The WHO Library is the world’s leading library on public health. It provides access to knowledge from WHO as well as from other sources of scientific literature produced around the world. WHO Library resources and expertise also provide scientific evidence and knowledge to low- and middle- income countries through a set of low-cost/high-use initiatives.

Networks and partnerships are an essential component in ensuring that our global initiatives reach a world-wide audience. Using a suite of collaborative tools, librarians and information specialists have a close understanding of country realities and needs. This helps keep focus on adequate and cost-effective information and knowledge sharing solutions

2  IRIS

The Institutional Repository for Information Sharing (IRIS) is the digital library of WHO’s published material and technical information in full text produced since 1948. Its content is freely accessible and searchable in the six official languages (Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian & Spanish).

3 GIM

The Global Index Medicus (GIM) provides worldwide access to biomedical and public health literature produced by and within low- and middle- income countries. The main objective is to increase the visibility and usability of this important set of resources.

The material is collated and aggregated by WHO Regional Office Libraries on a central search platform allowing retrieval of bibliographical and full text information

9. World Intellectual Property Organization

The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) is the global forum for intellectual property services, policy, information and cooperation. It is a self-funding agency of the United Nations, with 186 Member States. Its mission is to lead the development of a balanced and effective international intellectual property (IP) system that enables innovation and creativity for the benefit of all. The mandate, governing bodies and procedures were set out in the WIPO Convention, which established WIPO in 1967.

Intellectual property comprises two main branches:

• industrial property, chiefly in inventions, trademarks, industrial designs, and appellations of origin; and 
• copyright, chiefly in literary, musical, artistic, photographic and audiovisual works.

WIPO helps  governments, businesses and society realize the benefits of IP by providing

-       a policy forum to shape balanced international IP rules for a changing world;

-       global services to protect IP across borders and to resolve disputes;

-       technical infrastructure to connect IP systems and share knowledge;

-       cooperation and capacity-building programs to enable all countries to use IP for economic, social and cultural development; and

-       a world reference source for IP information.

WIPO works in close partnership with IP offices, IGOs, NGOs, and other public and private stakeholder throughout the world to deliver its programs.

1 Reference Section

WIPO is the world's most comprehensive source of data on the intellectual property (IP) system, as well as of empirical studies, reports and factual information on IP. For users   seeking statistical, legal or technical information, this is a gateway to the unique collections of resources and reference material. All  publications and data collections of WIPO are freely available online.

a)    IP and technology databases

b)    IP laws and treaties

c)    IP classifications and standards

d)    Information Resources

2 WIPO Library

The WIPO Library in Geneva, with over 35,000 references, supports the intellectual property (IP) research. The library offers a  unique collection - from the 1883 Paris Convention founding today’s IP system - to the most recent IP journals. Documents are located through the:

• Online catalogue (titles available in the print collection)
• Depository libraries

10. International Monetary Fund

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an organization of 188 countries, working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world. The IMF's fundamental mission is to help ensure stability in the international system. It does so in three ways:

• keeping track of the global economy and the economies of member countries;
• lending to countries with balance of payments difficulties; and
• giving practical help to members.

1 IMF eLibrary

The IMF eLibrary is a comprehensive, easy-to-use source ofunrivalled research and statistics on financialand economic developments. ThiseLibrary simplifies analysis and research with direct access to the IMF’s periodicals, books, working papers and studies, and data and statistical tools. You will find information and perspective on macroeconomics, globalization, development, trade and aid, technical assistance, demographics, emerging markets, policy advice, poverty reduction, and so much more. 

The eLibrary also holds multiple-format versions of all IMF publications, including:

• Books and analytical papers—Occasional Papers, Seminar Volumes, Departmental Papers, Country Reports, Glossaries, Staff Discussion Notes, Working Papers, and other publications.

• Periodicals and reports, such as the World Economic Outlook, Global Financial Stability Report, Fiscal Monitor, and Regional Economic Outlook reports.

• A full picture of IMF activities, with the Annual Report of the Executive Board, Finance & Development magazine, Independent Evaluation Office reports  

11. World Trade Organisation

Established in 1995, located at Geneva, the World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only global international organization dealing with the rules of trade between nations. There are a number of ways of looking at the World Trade Organization. It is an organization for trade opening, a forum for 159 member countries  to negotiate trade agreements, a place for them to settle trade disputes and operates a system of trade rules. Essentially, the WTO is a place where member governments try to sort out the trade problems they face with each other.

1 WTO Library

The WTO Library promotes the understanding and practice of the multilateral trading system through its collection of print and electronic resources. With nearly 40,000 monographs, more than 1,000 periodicals, and over 800 current yearbooks, the Library is the depository of GATT/WTO official documents and publications dating back to the Havana Charter, and has a comprehensive collection of national statistics from member and non-member countries. The Library serves the research interests of the WTO community. It is open to Secretariat staff, member state delegates, and any other visitor with an interest in the multilateral trading system, although materials are not loaned  to members of the public.

The WTO Library Catalogue provides bibliographical information and some full-text access to over 40,000 materials covering all aspects of the multilateral trading system. The Catalogue thus provides bibliographic information and some full-text access to books, GATT/WTO publications, articles, periodicals, pamphlets and brochures, CD-ROMs, web sites, and many other information resources.Additionally, through partnership with other teams in the WTO Information Management Service, broad access to a range of WTO information resources is also provided, including the official documents. Some access may be limited by WTO’s licensing agreements.

 Electronic access is also available from:

a)    Docs online (1995-)-This database provides access to the official documentation of theWTO, including the legal texts of the WTO agreements. This does not contain WTO publications.

b)    GATT digital library (1947-1994)- This site provides access to over 59,000 official documents of GATT, including legal texts of the GATT agreements. This does not contain GATT publications. This was created through a joint-effort by Stanford University Libraries and the WTO.

c)     UN Libraries – Facility to search the catalogues of UN and UN-agency Libraries for specialized information.

12. International Council For Science

The International Council for Science (ICSU) is a non-governmental organisation, started in 1931,  with a global membership of national scientific bodies (120 Members, representing 140 countries) and International Scientific Unions (31 Members).It was set up to act as a focus for exchange of ideas, the communication of scientific information and the development of standards in methodology, nomenclature and units. Another chief objective of ICSU was to encourage international scientific activity for the benefit of mankind.

ICSU’s mission is to strengthen international science for the benefit of society. To do this, ICSU mobilizes the knowledge and resources of the international science community to:

• Identify and address major issues of importance to science and society,
• Facilitate interaction amongst scientists across all disciplines and from all countries,
• Promote the participation of all scientists—regardless of race, citizenship, language, political stance, or gender—in the international scientific endeavour, and
• Provide independent, authoritative advice to stimulate constructive dialogue between the scientific community and governments, civil society, and the private sector.

ICSU publishes ICSU Yearbook, Annual Reports and a quarterly ICSU Newsletter.

1 CODATA- Committee on Data for Science and Technology

CODATA, the Committee on Data for Science and Technology, is an interdisciplinary Scientific Committee of the International Council for Science (ICSU). It was established in 1966 as an interdisciplinary Scientific Committee of the International Council for Science (ICSU) to promote and encourage, on a world-wide basis, the compilation, evaluation and dissemination of reliable numerical data of importance to science and technology.  CODATA works to improve the quality, reliability, management and accessibility of data of importance to all fields of science and technology. Currently, its members include  national members, scientific unions, co-opted members and supporting organisations.

CODATA is a resource that provides scientists and engineers with access to international data activities for increased awareness, direct cooperation and new knowledge. CODATA is concerned with all types of data resulting from experimental measurements, observations and calculations in every field of science and technology, including the physical sciences, biology, geology, astronomy, engineering, environmental science, ecology and others. Particular emphasis is given to data management problems common to different disciplines and to data used outside the field in which they were generated.

The resources of CODATA are regular newsletters, databases, CODATA Data Science Journal and Proceedings of CODATA International Conferences. 

13. International Council For Scientific And Technical Information

The future of scientific and technical information is changing as the new technologies are reshaping the way information is processed, transferred and used, and are altering the way the various participants interact. It is vital now, more than ever before, to exchange views, share experiences, and ensure cooperation among all concerned in information flow. ICSTI, The International Council for Scientific and Technical Information, offers a unique forum for interaction between organizations that create, disseminate and use scientific and technical information. ICSTI’s mission cuts across scientific and technical disciplines, as well as international borders, to give member organizations  the benefit of a truly global community. ICSTI is a broad-based, international, not-for-profit membership organisation with over 40 members.

ICSTI  addresses change and initiates programmes and projects of direct relevance to current and future scholarly communication concerns. ICSTI also actively promotes and provides a forum for the exchange of experience, expertise and understanding, and create the opportunity for organizational networking and collaboration across the scientific and technical information (STI) communities.

14. International Nuclear Information System

International Nuclear Information System (INIS), sponsored by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna started functioning in 1970. At present, 128 countries and 24 international organizations are INIS Members. It is a cooperative, decentralized computerized abstracting and indexing system providing worldwide coverage of the literature on the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. It processes and merges input provided by its members and redistributes the information in machine readable form as well as in print form. INIS is the right place for those who need information on the peaceful applications of nuclear science and technology. From 2012, INIS, together with the IAEA Library and the Systems Development and Support Group become part of a newly formed Nuclear Information Section (NIS).

Main activities of INIS are:

• INIS Collection Updating and Management
• Computer Assisted Indexing
• Preservation of Non-Conventional Nuclear Publications
• Creation of the INIS Multilingual Thesaurus
• Capacity Building (Training and e-Learning)
• INIS Progress and Activity Reports

INIS processes most of the world’s scientific and technical literature that falls within its subject scope. In cooperation with Member States and international organizations, INIS updates and manages annual input of around 120,000 new records. Every input record to the INIS collection is checked by the INIS Secretariat assuring the correctness and quality of the bibliographic description and subject analysis (classification, indexing and abstracting).

INIS Members submit input, i.e., nuclear literature published in their country or by their international organization, to the INIS Secretariat in machine-readable form, via Internet (e-mail/FTP) or other media, in a standardized format conforming to the guidelines in the INIS Reference Series and ETDE/INIS Reference Series. At the end of each processing cycle a final consolidated output file is created. This final file becomes the input to further programs that create the INIS output files in the INIS exchange format (ISO-2709) and create the input for the INIS Collection Search (web-based application). A user-friendly version of the INIS Collection Search is available on the web. It offers direct on-line access to over 3.6 million bibliographic records and many full-text documents of non-conventional  literature in pdf format. INIS Database is available at inis.iaea.org/search.

1 INIS Products and Services

INIS is the world´s leading information system on the peaceful uses of nuclear science and technology. INIS maintains a database of over 3.3 million bibliographic references and announces the availability of scientific literature published world-wide on the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. It also maintains a collection of full text documents that would be difficult to obtain elsewhere. Currently the INIS database on Internet contains over 3.3 million bibliographic references. Bibliographic metadata is often supplemented by an English abstract. Full-text documents represent around 10% of the collection. This unique set of non-conventional or grey literature is also fully searchable. 

Various products and services of INIS are:

• INIS Collection
• INIS/ETDE Thesaurus
• Outreach and Promotion
• Nuclear Information and Knowledge  Newsletter
• Capacity Building- Training and Distance learning
• Publications- INIS/ETDE Thesaurus, INIS Reference Services

2 INIS Restructuring

From 2012,INIS has been restructured and the newly created Nuclear Information Section (NIS) consists of:

• INIS Unit
• IAEA Library Unit
• Systems Development and Support Group

This restructuring and creation of NIS provides an opportunity for further enhancement of existing information products and services, and the introduction of new ones - all geared towards the goal of higher organizational efficiency and effectiveness. The Content Management Group, Database Production and Imaging Group, and Capacity Building and Liaison Group have all been combined to create one single INIS Unit.

3 INIS in India

India has been actively participating in INIS from the very beginning. The Library and Information Services Division of the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, is the National Centre responsible for INIS activities in India. The Centre has been quite successful in collecting information on the subject, sending the same to the centralized processing unit and the receiving and passing on the output the users in the country. 

15. The International Information System For The Agricultural Sciences And Technology

Page Contents

3 Information Activities

The International Information System for the Agricultural Sciences and Technology (AGRIS) was started in 1974 by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. AGRIS became fully operational in 1975 with the  first issue of AGRINDEX and was modelled on the INIS pattern  to facilitate information exchange and to bring together the world literature dealing with all aspects of agriculture. AGRIS provides worldwide bibliographic coverage of agricultural science and technology literature. The many aspects of agriculture, including forestry, animal husbandry, aquatic sciences and fisheries, and human nutrition from over 150 participating centres are covered. Literature includes unique material such as unpublished scientific and technical reports, theses, conference papers, government publications, and more. Approximately 130,000 records are added each year with key words in English, French, and Spanish.

Presently, FAO’s another programme, Current Agricultural Research Information System (CARIS) and AGRIS are operating collectively. AGRIS’ mission is to improve the accessibility of agricultural information available on the Web by maintaining and enhancing AGRIS, a bibliographic repository for repositories related to agricultural research. This is carried out by promoting the exchange of common standards and methodologies for bibliographic information and thus leading to enriching the AGRIS knowledge by linking to other relevant resources on the Web.

1 Features of AGRIS

• AGRIS contains more than 7 million bibliographic references on agricultural research and technology &links to related data resources on the Web, like DBPedia, World Bank, Nature, FAO Fisheries and FAO Country profiles.

• A collaborative network of more than 150 institutions from 65 countries, maintained by FAO of the UN, promoting free access to agricultural information.

• A multilingual bibliographic database for agricultural science, backed by the AGRIS network, containing more than 7 million records largely enhanced with AGROVOC, FAO’s multilingual thesaurus covering all areas of interest to FAO, including food, nutrition, agriculture, fisheries, forestry, environment, etc.

• A mash-up Web application that links the AGRIS knowledge to related Web resources using the Linked Open Data methodology to provide as much information as possible about a topic within the agricultural domain.

2 New AGRIS

Keeping pace with the new technologies, enhanced resource accessibility is identified as one of the core objectives of the new AGRIS. In the new version, the AGRIS search engine is able to retrieve and interpret a wealth of diverse information sources including full-text documents, threads from discussion forums, blog entries, news articles, and organizational, regional, national, international information (re)sources. New version of AGRIS is also part of the CIARD (Coherence in Information for Agricultural Research for Development) initiative, in which CGIAR (Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research), GFAR (Global Forum on Agricultural Research) and FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization) collaborate to create a community for efficient knowledge sharing in agricultural research and development. 

Presently, AGRIS is operating  as a  Digital Library in the subject of agriculture and  has the AGROVOC Thesaurus. 

3 Information Activities

The new AGRIS has various information activities:

a)    Open access to AGRIS digital resources

b)    AGRIS Repository

c)    AGROVOC - multilingual agriculturethesaurus

d)    Agricultural Ontology Service

e)    OpenAGRIS: the new AGRIS Linked Open Data mode

4 AGRIS in INDIA

India has been actively participating in AGRIS from the very beginning. The participating AGRIS institution from India is the  Agricultural Research Information Centre, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi.  On an average, 3500 bibliographic entries are submitted to AGRIS database as Indian input every year.

The Agricultural Research Information Centre, every month, receives from FAO updated machine-readable AGRIS outputs. Retrieval is then provided to agricultural scientists requiring information  in the country. A computerized SDC services is also made available to agricultural researchers of India.

16. UNEP-INFOTERRA

INFOTERRA is an information network of the  United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) established in Nairobi in 1977 for facilitating global environmental information exchange. The programmes is functionally successful  because of an efficient system that operates through national focal points designated by various governments that are members of the United Nations. As a component part of a United Nations programme, the INFOTERRA network has access to specialized databases and information sources on environment related subjects located in UNEP. The INFOTERRA network as a whole handles over 30,000 queries per year on various aspects of human and physical environment.

The INFOTERRA has 170 national focal points, 11 regional service centres, and 34 special sectoral source. The national focal point in each member state  is mostly  a national information centre dealing with environmental science and usually is located in the ministry or a government agency responsible for activities concerned with environmental protection. The primary function of each centre is to provide a national environmental information service. In the early years INFOTERRA operated only as a referral system. However, following the recommendations since 1981, INFOTERRA evolved and expanded its services to include substantive information and document delivery.

The users seeking information on  the areas related to  environment can contact the INFOTERRA network through the following: 

• UNEP World Wide Web (WWW) site (http://www.unep.org) 
• INFOTERRA list server; and 
• INFOTERRA Secretariat

1 UNEP Knowledge Repository

The UNEP Knowledge Repository is the United Nations Environment Programme’s official platform for its research content and knowledge products. The repository gives open access to UNEP’s publications, technical and assessment reports, guidelines, newsletters, journal articles and other types of information material. The repository complies with interoperability standards and supports optimal content search. It aims to improve access to and the visibility of UNEP’s body of published work among governments, scientists, NGOs, the private sector, students and the public. By providing knowledge products online and in digital format, UNEP is delivering on its commitment to enhance access to environmental information and knowledge for a sustainable future.

2  INFOTERRA in India

India, being a member of the United Nations has been actively participating in the INFOTERRA Programme. ENVIS, the Environmental Information System, due to its comprehensive network has been designed as the National Focal Point (NFP) for INFOTERRA from India. In order to strengthen the information activities of the NFP,  ENVIS was designated as the Regional Service Centre (RSC) of INFOTERRA of UNEP in 1985 for the South Asia Sub-Region countries. 

17. MEDLINE

MEDLINE (Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System Online, or MEDLARS Online) is a bibliographic database of life sciences and biomedical information. It includes bibliographic information for articles from academic journals covering medicine, nursing, pharmacy, dentistry, veterinary medicine, and health care. It was established in 1964 as MEDLARS(Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System), a computerized storage and retrieval  system at the US’s National Library of Medicine (NLM) to provide for bibliographic access to the NLM’s large biomedical literature collection. MEDLINE also covers much of the literature in biology and biochemistry, as well as fields such as molecular evolution. Compiled by the  National Library of Medicine (NLM) of United States, MEDLINE is freely available on the Internet and is searchable via PubMed and NLM's National Center for Biotechnology Information's Entrez system.

MEDLINE  database  contains over 19 million references to journal articles in life sciences with a concentration on biomedicine. A distinctive feature of MEDLINE is that the records are indexed with NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH). MEDLINE is also the primary component of PubMed, part of the Entrez series of databases provided by the NLM National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). The time coverage of the database is 1946 to the present, with some older material. MEDLINE, therefore, functions as an important resource for biomedical researchers. More than 5,500 biomedical journals are indexed in MEDLINE.

1 PubMed

PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine (NLM) at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval.

From 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS computerized database had been primarily through institutional facilities like medical libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, and home-computerized MEDLINE searching. The PubMed system was offered free to the public in June, 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the web were demonstrated. 

18. CAS – Chemical Abstracts Service

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3 CASSI

Established in 1907, the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) is a non-profit organization of the American Chemical Society (ACS),  located in Columbus, Ohio. CAS, a division of the American Chemical Society, is the world’s authority for chemical information and is the only organization in the world whose objective is to find, collect and organize all publicly disclosed substance information. A team of scientists worldwide controls the quality of its databases, which are recognized as the most comprehensive and authoritative by chemical and pharmaceutical companies, universities, government organizations and patent offices around the world. By combining these databases with advanced search and analysis technologies (SciFinder and STN), CAS delivers the most current, complete, secure and interlinked digital information environment for scientific discovery.

Chemical Abstracts is a periodical index that provides summaries and indexes of disclosures in recently published scientific documents. Approximately 8,000 journals,technical reports, dissertations, conference proceedings, and new books, in any of 50 languages, are monitored yearly, as are patent specifications from 27 countries and two international organizations. Chemical Abstracts ceased print publication on January 1, 2010.

1 CAS Databases

The two principal databases that support the different products are:

a) CA plus

CAplus consists of bibliographic information and abstracts for all articles in chemical journals worldwide, and chemistry-related articles from all scientific journals, patents, and other scientific publications.

b)  Registry

Registry contains information on more than 71 million organic and inorganic substances, and more than 64 million protein and DNA sequences. The sequence information comes from CAS and GenBank, produced by the National Institutes of Health. The chemical information is produced by CAS, and is prepared by the CAS Registry System, which identifies each compound with a specific CAS registry number, index name, and graphic representation of its chemical structure. The assignment of chemical names is done according to the chemical nomenclature rules for CA index names, which is slightly different from the internationally standard IUPAC names, according to the rules of IUPA

2 CAS Products

CAS offers online, Web-based and desktop access to databases covering science, engineering, technology, patents, business information and much more. These products are designed to accommodate a wide range of information needs, for users who are infrequent searchers or who only need a few quick answers or a professional searcher who requires a more powerful and comprehensive set of search tools. The various CAS products are:

• CAS Client Services
• CAS CD-ROM Product
• International CODEN Service
• Free CAS Web-based Products

CAS databases are available via two principal database systems:

a)    STN

STN (Scientific & Technical Information Network) International is operated jointly by CAS and FIZ Karlsruhe, and is intended primarily for information professionals, using acommand language interface. In addition to CAS databases, STN also provides access to many other databases, similar to Dialog.

b)  SciFinder

SciFinder is a database of chemical and bibliographic information. Originally a clientapplication, a web version was released in 2008.  It has a graphics interface, and can be searched for chemical structures. The client version is for chemists in commercial organizations. Versions for both the Windows and Macintosh exist. SciFinder Scholar is for universities and other academic institutions and lacks some supplementary features for multi-database searching.

3 CASSI

CASSI stands for Chemical Abstracts Service Source Index. This formerly print-only database is now a free online resource to look up and confirm publication information. CASSI provides titles and abbreviations, CODEN, ISSN, publisher, and date of first issue (history) for a selected journal. Also included is its language of text and language of summaries. The range is from 1907 to the present, including both serial and non-serial scientific and technical publications. The database is updated annually every December.

19. INSPEC

INSPEC, started in 1967, is presently published by the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET), United Kingdom. It is presently one of the  leading bibliographic information services available  in English-language and provides access to the world's scientific and technical literature in physics, electrical engineering, electronics, communications, control engineering, computers and computing, and information technology. INSPEC  coverage is extensive in the fields of physics and computer, control, and mechanical engineering. Its subject coverage includes astronomy, electronics, communications, ergonomics, computers & computing, computer science, control engineering, electrical engineering, information technology, and physics. The INSPEC database is an invaluable information resource for all scientists and engineers, that contains 14 million abstracts and specialised indexing to the world's quality research literature in the fields of physics and engineering.Access to INSPEC is currently by the Internet through Inspec Direct and various resellers.

1 Print counterparts

INSPEC has several print counterparts that include:

• Computer and Control Abstracts
• Electrical and Electronics Abstracts
• Physics Abstracts
• Science Abstracts
• Electrical engineering Abstracts* Electronics Abstracts
• Control theory Abstracts
• Information technology Abstracts
• Physics Indexes
• Electrical engineering Indexes
• Electronics Indexes
• Control theory Indexes
• Information technology Indexes

2 INSPEC Search Aids

The various INSPEC search aids are:

• INSPEC Classification
• INSPEC Thesaurus – electronic and print version
• INSPEC List of Journals
• INSPEC List of Journals XML

3 INSPEC Services

INSPEC assists engineers, scientists and others in their research, to locate relevant journal articles, conference papers and other documents. In addition, the database may be used for:

• Current Awareness
• New Product Information
• Technological Forecasting
• Competitive Intelligence
• Patent-Related Searching

INSPEC information is available in a wide range of products in Electronic format, as  current awareness services including online products. The related products and services are the IET’s  Library and Archives making available – Library service, Search Service, Document delivery service, Electronic Materials Information Service and Reference Service.

20. Web Of Science

Web of Science (WoS) is an online subscription-based scientific citation indexing service maintained by Thomson Reuters that provides a comprehensive citation search. It gives access to multiple databases that reference cross-disciplinary research, which allows for in-depth exploration of specialized sub-fields within an academic or scientific discipline.  The coverage includes - the sciences, social sciences, arts, and humanities, and goes across disciplines.  Web of Science Core Collection provides researchers, administrators, faculty and students with quick and powerful access to the world’s leading citation databases. Authoritative, multidisciplinary contents cover over 12,000 highest impact journals worldwide including open access journals and over 150,000 conference proceedings. Journals with current and retrospective coverage dating back to 1900  in science, social sciences and humanities can be searched. It helps to overcome information overload and focuses on essential data across more than 250 disciplines.  

This most comprehensive research platform offers Multidisciplinary content, Integrated content search, Pattern and trend analysis and Citation visualization. The service is intended for academic researchers, information professionals research and development professionals. Whether looking at data, books, journals, proceedings or patents, Web of Science provides a single destination to access the most reliable, integrated, multidisciplinary research. Quality, curated content delivered alongside information on emerging trends, subject specific content and analysis tools make it easy for students, faculty, researchers, analysts, and program managers to pinpoint the most relevant research to inform their work.

1 Components

Web of Science has the following components based on which information for various researchers is made available.

a)    Biological Abstracts

b)    BIOSIS Citation Index

c)    BIOSIS Preview

d)    CAB Abstracts

e)    CAB Global Health

f)     Chinese Science Citation Database

g)    Current Contents Connect

h)    Data Citation Index

i)      Derwent Innovations Index

j)      Food Science and Technology Abstracts

k)    INSPEC

l)      MEDLINE

m)  SciELO Citation Index

n)    Web of Science Core Collection

• o)    Zoological Records

2 Related Products

a)    Science Citation Index

b)    Social Science Citation Index

c)    Arts and Humanities Citation Index

d)    Current Contents Connect

21. Biosis Previews

BIOSIS Previews is an English-language, bibliographic database service, with abstracts and citation indexing. It is part of Thomson ReutersWeb of Knowledge suite. Content that was originally integrated from the BIOSIScompany before the merger in 2004 is now part of the Web of Knowledge. BIOSIS Previews indexes data from 1926 to the present.

BIOSIS Previews is part of the Life Sciences in the Web of Knowledge. Its coverage encompasses the life sciences literature and biomedical sciences literature, with global coverage on a wide range of subject areas. This is accomplished with access to indexed journal content from Biological Abstracts, and supplemental, indexed, non-journal content from Biological Abstracts/Reports, Reviews, Meetings or (BA/RRM) or (Biological Abstracts/RRM) and the major publications of BIOSIS. This coverage includes literature in pre-clinical and experimental research, methods and instrumentation, animal studies, environmental and consumer issues, and other areas.

BIOSIS   databases are the most complete resource for finding life sciences information quickly and efficiently. Documents are selected from thousands of sources worldwide, indexed and abstracted into citations which describe their content, and maintain databases for searching citations.

Conclusion

Information is a vital resource for users and information specialists. The national organizations, international organizations and professional bodies are engaged in providing services and products which help in closing the information gap. Another problem is that the Western nations have always been information rich and the developing countries are information poor. The modern technologies, especially the computer and the telecommunication technologies have bridged this information gap to a great extent. For this, several international organizations have come forward to help close this wide gap by their programmes and activities.

There are many international organizations, systems and centres contributing towards promotion, coordination and development of library and information services for assisting the users. In this unit, we have covered global information systems like INIS, AGRIS and INFORTERRA that provide cooperative systems and services and work on the principle of decentralized input, centralized processing and decentralized output.

United Nations agencies, professional organizations like IFLA, ICSU, etc. have helped a lot in this regard. They are professional bodies that provide a forum for exchange of ideas and experience. Specialized global information systems like the CAS and MEDLARS provide computerized products, services and activities that ensure taking care of the information needs of the user community.

The growing demand for information and increasing use of present facilities and services indicates the need and importance of such national, international and special information organizations within our information infrastructure.The inputs from various member countries have enabled most of the international organisations and agencies to be successful.  In this module, an overview of

international information organisations, systems and facilities in various subject areas has been given. Some of the organisations listed in this module have been covered in detail in the subsequent modules.